In these consolidated appeals, the Commonwealth challenges orders of the Montgomery County Court of Common Pleas relieving appellees, Claude Lacombe and Michael Witmayer, of their duty to comply with Subchapter I of the Sex Offender Registration and Notification Act (SORNA), 42 Pa.C.S. §§ 9799.51 - 9799.75, based upon the court's finding Subchapter I, as retroactively applied to appellees, is a punitive and unconstitutional ex post facto law. For the reasons set forth below, we now hold this was error, Subchapter I is nonpunitive and does not violate the constitutional prohibition against ex post facto laws.

The prohibition of ex post facto laws appears in the United States Constitution in Article I, Section 9, which is a limitation on Congress’ authority to pass laws, and in Article I, Section 10, which is a limitation on the power of the states. Article I, Section 9 provides: "No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed." U.S. Const. art. I, § 9. Article I, Section 10 similarly provides: "No State shall ... pass any Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law, or Law impairing the Obligation of Contracts, or grant any Title of Nobility." U.S. Const. art. I, § 10.
Pennsylvania's ex post facto provision is found in Article I, Section 17 of our Constitution, which states that: "No ex post facto law, nor any law impairing the obligation of contracts, or making irrevocable any grant of special privileges or immunities, shall be passed." Pa. Const. art I, § 17.

I. Procedural History of the Present Appeals

A. Claude Lacombe

In 1997, Lacombe was convicted of involuntary deviate sexual intercourse (IDSI), sexual assault, indecent assault, official oppression, and unsworn falsification to authorities and sentenced to a term of six to twenty years’ imprisonment. Lacombe was not found to be a sexually violent predator (SVP), but was required to comply with the then-applicable version of Megan's Law for a period of ten years upon his release from prison due to his IDSI conviction; Lacombe was released from prison in April of 2005 and his period of registration would have ended in April of 2015. In the meantime, however, the General Assembly enacted the first version of SORNA, under which Lacombe was designated as a Tier III offender and required to comply with the mandates of the statute for the remainder of his life.

Lacombe did not challenge the corresponding changes to his reporting obligations until February 20, 2018, after we decided Commonwealth v. Muniz , 640 Pa. 699, 164 A.3d 1189 (2017) (plurality) (SORNA requirements have punitive effect pursuant to Kennedy v. Mendoza-Martinez , 372 U.S. 144, 83 S.Ct. 554, 9 L.Ed.2d 644 (1963), and retroactive application thus constitutes ex post facto violation). Relying upon that decision, Lacombe filed in common pleas court a petition to terminate his sexual offender registration requirements. On June 1, 2018, the Commonwealth replied to Lacombe's petition, countering Lacombe's reliance upon Muniz , and noting Muniz addressed a former version of SORNA. By that point, the General Assembly had enacted Subchapter I, which is markedly different from the version of SORNA invalidated in Muniz . In response, Lacombe, still relying upon Muniz , maintained Subchapter I also is punitive and constitutionally infirm. On June 21, 2018, following oral argument, the court granted Lacombe's petition, finding Subchapter I to be a punitive and unconstitutional ex post facto law, and relieved him of any duty to comply with Subchapter I.

In Mendoza-Martinez , the United States Supreme Court listed the following seven factors as a framework for determining whether a statutory sanction is so punitive as to negate a legislature's expressed intention to identify the scheme as civil or regulatory: "[w]hether the sanction involves an affirmative disability or restraint, whether it has historically been regarded as a punishment, whether it comes into play only on a finding of scienter, whether its operation will promote the traditional aims of punishment—retribution and deterrence, whether the behavior to which it applies is already a crime, whether an alternative purpose to which it may rationally be connected is assignable for it, and whether it appears excessive in relation to the alternative purpose assigned[.]" 372 U.S. at 168-69, 83 S.Ct. 554 (footnotes omitted).

The Commonwealth filed a motion for reconsideration, wherein it maintained its position that Subchapter I is not punitive. The Commonwealth also argued for the first time that, if Subchapter I is punitive, then any challenge thereto had to be raised in a timely petition under the Post Conviction Relief Act (PCRA), 42 Pa.C.S. §§ 9541 -46. Because Lacombe's challenge to Subchapter I was facially untimely for purposes of the PCRA, according to the Commonwealth, the court lacked jurisdiction to afford any relief. The court denied the petition for reconsideration, and the Commonwealth appealed the order directly to this Court. See 42 Pa.C.S. § 722(7) ("The Supreme Court shall have exclusive jurisdiction of appeals from final orders ... [in m]atters where the court of common pleas has held invalid as repugnant to the Constitution, treaties or laws of the United States, or to the Constitution of this Commonwealth, any treaty or law of the United States or any provision of the Constitution of, or of any statute of, this Commonwealth, or any provision of any home rule charter.").

B. Michael Witmayer

In 2014, Witmayer was convicted of IDSI with a child who is less than sixteen years of age, indecent assault of a child who is less than sixteen years of age, corruption of the morals of a minor, and endangering the welfare of children due to a pattern of sexual abuse which occurred between January of 2006 and December of 2012.

Before sentencing, the trial court held an SVP hearing, after which the court determined that the Commonwealth had failed to demonstrate Witmayer met the criteria to be deemed an SVP. Nonetheless, because the IDSI conviction constituted a Tier III offense under the original version of SORNA, the trial court informed Witmayer that he was obliged to register as a sexual offender and comply with SORNA's terms and conditions for the remainder of his life. The trial court then sentenced Witmayer to five and one-half to twenty years in prison. Witmayer appealed, the Superior Court affirmed his judgment of sentence, see Commonwealth v. Witmayer , 144 A.3d 939 (Pa. Super. 2016), and this Court denied review. See Commonwealth v. Witmayer , 641 Pa. 596, 169 A.3d 27 (2017) (per curiam ).

On January 17, 2018, Witmayer filed a timely, pro se PCRA petition. The PCRA court appointed counsel, who filed an amended petition. Therein, Witmayer contended that, because his offenses were completed before SORNA took effect, retroactive application of SORNA constituted an ex post facto violation, an argument based on Muniz . As it did in Lacombe's post-conviction proceedings, the Commonwealth alerted the PCRA court to the fact that, before Witmayer filed his amended petition, Subchapter I had been enacted and taken effect, replacing SORNA as the governing statutory scheme with which Witmayer had to comply. Thus, the Commonwealth posited, the constitutional deficiencies identified in Muniz effectively were remedied, and any claim relying upon Muniz was moot. The PCRA court directed Witmayer to file a response to the Commonwealth's position.

On September 20, 2018, Witmayer filed a second amended PCRA petition. In that filing, Witmayer highlighted the fact that none of the conduct for which he was convicted occurred after December 20, 2012, the date that determines whether Subchapter H or Subchapter I applies. Because his conduct occurred before that date, Whitmayer argued if the new scheme of Subchapter I applied to him, it had to apply retroactively. Witmayer maintained that, because the changes to SORNA effectuated by Subchapter I were minor, the scheme remained punitive in nature, and its retroactive application necessarily constituted an ex post facto violation. The PCRA court, which had already ruled Subchapter I is punitive and unconstitutional during Lacombe's proceedings, held a hearing and subsequently granted Witmayer's PCRA petition. The Commonwealth appealed directly to this Court. See 42 Pa.C.S. § 722(7).

To address this Court's decision in Muniz and the Superior Court's decision in Commonwealth v. Butler , 173 A.3d 1212 (Pa. Super. 2017) (invalidating SORNA's mechanism for determining SVP status, see 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.51(b)(4) ) (reversed by Commonwealth v. Butler , ––– Pa. ––––, 226 A.3d 972 (2020) ), the General Assembly divided SORNA into two subchapters. Subchapter H is based on the original SORNA statute and is applicable to offenders who committed their offenses after the December 20, 2012 effective date of SORNA, 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.11(c) ; Subchapter I is applicable to offenders, like appellees, who committed their offenses between April 22, 1996 and the effective date of SORNA. Subchapter H is not at issue in this case. We considered a challenge to the constitutionality of Subchapter H in Commonwealth v. Torsilieri , ––– A.3d ––––, 2020 WL 3241625 (Pa. filed June 16, 2020). However, we remanded to the trial court for further development of the record and a determination on Torsilieri's claim that there is now a consensus that calls into question the General Assembly's finding that sexual offenders pose a high risk of re-offense. Id . at ––––, 2020 WL 3241625, at *22 ; see also 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.11(a)(4).

C. Summary of the Arguments and Applicable Standards of Review

Briefly, the parties dispute whether Subchapter I is punitive and its retroactive application to Lacombe and Witmayer is thus unconstitutional under an ex post facto analysis, notwithstanding the significant differences between Subchapter I and the original SORNA statute at issue in Muniz . In the case of Lacombe, the parties also dispute whether the PCRA is the sole avenue for challenging sexual offender statutes and, if so, whether Lacombe was required to establish an exception to the PCRA's timeliness requirements. As we consider the parties’ arguments in greater detail below, "we recognize there is a general presumption that all lawfully enacted statutes are constitutional. In addition, as this case presents questions of law, our scope of review is plenary and we review the lower courts’ legal determinations de novo ." Muniz , 164 A.3d at 1195 (internal citation omitted).

Witmayer additionally claims Subchapter I violates: 1) the separation of powers doctrine by unconstitutionally usurping judicial sentencing authority; 2) due process pursuant to Apprendi v. New Jersey , 530 U.S. 466, 120 S.Ct. 2348, 147 L.Ed.2d 435 (2000), and Alleyne v. United States , 570 U.S. 99, 133 S.Ct. 2151, 186 L.Ed.2d 314 (2013) ; and 3) double jeopardy protections. We do not address these claims, however, because they were not addressed by the common pleas court in the first instance and are thus not properly before us, and, in any event, the Commonwealth, as appellant, has appealed only from the determination Subchapter I is unconstitutional as an ex post facto law. See Commonwealth's Brief at 1. Each of these claims, however, is predicated upon Witmayer's argument that Subchapter I is punitive and, given our ultimate holding that Subchapter I is nonpunitive, the claims would fail in any event.

This Court also received argument briefs from the Office of the Attorney General (OAG) as intervenor, and amici curiae Pennsylvania District Attorneys Association, the Pennsylvania Office of the Victim Advocate, the Pennsylvania Coalition Against Rape, Crimewatch Technologies, Inc., in support of the Commonwealth, and the Pennsylvania Association for Rational Sexual Offense Laws in support of appellees.

II. Relevant Legal History

As we consider the constitutional validity of Subchapter I, we first review the original SORNA statute, the Muniz decision, and the new requirements of Subchapter I.

A. Original SORNA Statute

We provided a detailed description of the original SORNA statute in Muniz and we reproduce that description here:

The General Assembly enacted SORNA in response to the federal Adam Walsh Child Protection and Safety Act of 2006, Public Law 109-248, 42 U.S.C. §§ 16901 - 16991, which mandates that states impose on sex offenders certain tier-based registration and notification requirements in order to avoid being subject to a penalty, i.e. , the loss of federal grant funding. In re J.B. , 630 Pa. 408, 107 A.3d 1, 3 (2014). Accordingly, Pennsylvania's

General Assembly sought to comply with this federal legislation by providing for "the expiration of prior registration requirements, commonly referred to as Megan's Law [III], 42 Pa.C.S. §§ 9791 - 9799.9, as of December 20, 2012, and for the effectiveness of SORNA on the same date." Id .

The purposes of SORNA, as stated by the General Assembly, are as follows:

(1) To bring the Commonwealth into substantial compliance with the Adam Walsh Child Protection and Safety Act of 2006

...

(2) To require individuals convicted or adjudicated delinquent of certain sexual offenses to register with the Pennsylvania State Police and to otherwise comply with this subchapter if those individuals reside within this Commonwealth, intend to reside within this Commonwealth, attend an educational institution inside this Commonwealth or are employed or conduct volunteer work within this Commonwealth.

(3) To require individuals convicted or adjudicated delinquent of certain sexual offenses who fail to maintain a residence and are therefore homeless but can still be found within the borders of this Commonwealth to register with the Pennsylvania State Police.

(4) To require individuals who are currently subject to the criminal justice system of this Commonwealth as inmates, supervised with respect to probation or parole or registrants under this subchapter to register with the Pennsylvania State Police and to otherwise comply with this subchapter. To the extent practicable and consistent with the requirements of the Adam Walsh Child Protection and Safety Act of 2006, this subchapter shall be construed to maintain existing procedures regarding registration of sexual offenders who are subject to the criminal justice system of this Commonwealth.

(5) To provide a mechanism for members of the general public to obtain information about certain sexual offenders from a public Internet website and to include on that Internet website a feature which will allow a member of the public to enter a zip code or geographic radius and determine whether a sexual offender resides within that zip code or radius.

(6) To provide a mechanism for law enforcement entities within this Commonwealth to obtain information about certain sexual offenders and to allow law enforcement entities outside this Commonwealth, including those within the Federal Government, to obtain current information about certain sexual offenders.

42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.10. Furthermore, the General Assembly expressed the legislative findings and declaration of policy supporting SORNA as follows:

(a) Legislative findings.— The General Assembly finds as follows:

(1) In 1995 the General Assembly enacted the act of October 24, 1995 (1st Sp. Sess. P.L. 1079, No. 24), commonly referred to as Megan's Law. Through this enactment, the General Assembly intended to comply with legislation enacted by Congress requiring that states provide for the registration of sexual offenders. The Federal statute, the Jacob Wetterling Crimes Against Children and Sexually Violent Offender Registration Act (Public Law 103-322, 42 U.S.C. 14071 et seq . ), has been superseded by the Adam Walsh Child Protection and

Safety Act of 2006 (Public Law 190-248, 120 Stat. 587).

(2) This Commonwealth's laws regarding registration of sexual offenders need to be strengthened. The Adam Walsh Child Protection and Safety Act of 2006 provides a mechanism for the Commonwealth to increase its regulation of sexual offenders in a manner which is nonpunitive but offers an increased measure of protection to the citizens of this Commonwealth.

(3) If the public is provided adequate notice and information about sexual offenders, the community can develop constructive plans to prepare for the presence of sexual offenders in the community. This allows communities to meet with law enforcement to prepare and obtain information about the rights and responsibilities of the community and to provide education and counseling to residents, particularly children.

(4) Sexual offenders pose a high risk of committing additional sexual offenses and protection of the public from this type of offender is a paramount governmental interest.

(5) Sexual offenders have a reduced expectation of privacy because of the public's interest in public safety and in the effective operation of government.

(6) Release of information about sexual offenders to public agencies and the general public will further the governmental interests of public safety and public scrutiny of the criminal and mental health systems so long as the information released is rationally related to the furtherance of those goals.

(7) Knowledge of whether a person is a sexual offender could be a significant factor in protecting oneself and one's family members, or those in care of a group or community organization, from recidivist acts by such offenders.

(8) The technology afforded by the Internet and other modern electronic communication methods makes this information readily accessible to parents, minors, and private entities, enabling them to undertake appropriate remedial precautions to prevent or avoid placing potential victims at risk.

(b) Declaration of policy.— The General Assembly declares as follows:

(1) It is the intention of the General Assembly to substantially comply with the Adam Walsh Child Protection and Safety Act of 2006 and to further protect the safety and general welfare of the citizens of this Commonwealth by providing for increased regulation of sexual offenders, specifically as that regulation relates to registration of sexual offenders and community notification about sexual offenders.

(2) It is the policy of the Commonwealth to require the exchange of relevant information about sexual offenders among public agencies and officials and to authorize the release of necessary and relevant information about sexual offenders to members of the general public as a means of assuring public protection and shall not be construed as punitive.

(3) It is the intention of the General Assembly to address the Pennsylvania Supreme Court's decision in Commonwealth v. Neiman , [624 Pa. 53, 84 A.3d 603] (Pa. 2013), by amending this subchapter in the act of March 14, 2014 (P.L. 41, No. 19).

42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.11(a) - (b).

SORNA's registration provisions are applicable to, inter alia , the following individuals: (1) those convicted of a sexually violent offense, on or after the effective date of SORNA, who are residents of

Pennsylvania, employed in Pennsylvania, students in Pennsylvania or transients; (2) those who are inmates, on or after the effective date of SORNA, in state or county prisons as a result of a conviction for a sexually violent offense; (3) those who, on or after the effective date of SORNA, are inmates in a federal prison or are supervised by federal probation authorities as a result of a sexually violent offense and have a residence in Pennsylvania, are employed in Pennsylvania, are students in Pennsylvania or transients; and, pertinent to this appeal, (4) those who were required to register under previous versions of Megan's Law and had not yet fulfilled their registration period as of the effective date of SORNA. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.13.

SORNA classifies offenders and their offenses into three tiers. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.14. Those convicted of Tier I offenses are subject to registration for a period of fifteen years and are required to verify their registration information and be photographed, in person at an approved registration site, annually. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.15(a)(1), (e)(1).¹⁶ Those convicted of Tier II offenses are subject to registration for a period of twenty-five years and are required to verify their registration information and be photographed, in person at an approved registration site, semi-annually. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.15(a)(2), (e)(2).¹⁷

¹⁶ The Tier I offenses enumerated in SORNA are as follows: 18 Pa.C.S. § 2902(b) (relating to unlawful restraint); 18 Pa.C.S. § 2903(b) (relating to false imprisonment); 18 Pa.C.S. § 2904 (relating to interference with custody of children); 18 Pa.C.S. § 2910 (relating to luring a child into a motor vehicle or structure); 18 Pa.C.S. § 3124.2(a) (relating to institutional sexual assault); 18 Pa.C.S. § 3126(a)(1) (relating to indecent assault); 18 Pa.C.S. § 6301(a)(1)(ii) (relating to corruption of minors); 18 Pa.C.S. § 6312(d) (relating to sexual abuse of children); 18 Pa.C.S. § 7507.1 (relating to invasion of privacy); 18 U.S.C. § 1801 (relating to video voyeurism); 18 U.S.C. § 2252(a)(4) (relating to certain activities relating to material involving the sexual exploitation of minors); 18 U.S.C. § 2252A (relating to certain activities relating to material constituting or containing child pornography); 18 U.S.C. § 2252B (relating to misleading domain names on the internet); 18 U.S.C. § 2252C (relating to misleading words or digital images on the internet); 18 U.S.C. § 2422(a) (relating to coercion and enticement); 18 U.S.C. § 2423(b) (relating to transportation of minors); 18 U.S.C. § 2423(c) (relating to engaging in illicit sexual conduct in foreign places); 18 U.S.C. § 2424 (relating to filing factual statement about alien individual); 18 U.S.C. § 2425 (relating to use of interstate facilities to transmit information about a minor); a comparable military offense or similar offense under the laws of another jurisdiction or foreign country or under a former law of this Commonwealth; an attempt, conspiracy or solicitation to commit any of the above offenses; and a conviction for a sexual offense in another jurisdiction or foreign country that is not set forth in this section, but nevertheless requires registration under a sexual offender statute in the jurisdiction or foreign country. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.14(b).

¹⁷ The Tier II offenses enumerated in SORNA are as follows: 18 Pa.C.S. § 3011(b) (relating to trafficking in individuals); 18 Pa.C.S. § 3122.1(a)(2) (relating to statutory sexual assault); 18 Pa.C.S. § 3124.2(a.2) and (a.3) (relating

to institutional sexual assault in schools or child care centers); 18 Pa.C.S. § 3126(a)(2), (3), (4), (5), (6) or (8) (relating to indecent assault when victim is over 13 years of age); 18 Pa.C.S. § 5902(b.1) (relating to prostitution and related offenses); 18 Pa.C.S. § 5903(a)(3)(ii), (4)(ii), (5)(ii) or (6) (relating to obscene and other sexual materials and performances); 18 Pa.C.S. § 6312(b) and (c) ; 18 Pa.C.S. § 6318 (relating to unlawful contact with minor); 18 Pa.C.S. § 6320 (relating to sexual exploitation of children); 18 U.S.C. § 1591 (relating to sex trafficking of children by force, fraud or coercion); 18 U.S.C. § 2243 (relating to sexual abuse of a minor or ward); 18 U.S.C. § 2244 (relating to abusive sexual conduct) where the victim is 13 years of age or older but under 18 years of age; 18 U.S.C. § 2251 (relating to sexual exploitation of children); 18 U.S.C. § 2251A (relating to selling or buying children); 18 U.S.C. § 2252(a)(1), (2) or (3) ; 18 U.S.C. § 2260 (relating to production of sexually explicit depictions of a minor for importation into the United States); 18 U.S.C. § 2421 (relating to transportation generally); 18 U.S.C. § 2422(b) ; 18 U.S.C. § 2423(a) ; a comparable military offense or similar offense under the laws of another jurisdiction or foreign country or under a former law of this Commonwealth; and an attempt, conspiracy or solicitation to commit any of the above offenses. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.14(c).

Those convicted of Tier III offenses are subject to lifetime registration and are required to verify their registration information and be photographed, in person at an approved registration site, quarterly. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.15(a)(3), (e)(3). The Tier III offenses enumerated in SORNA—including the crime of which appellant was convicted, indecent assault where the individual is less than thirteen years of age—are as follows:

(1) 18 Pa.C.S. § 2901(a.1) (relating to kidnapping).

(2) 18 Pa.C.S. § 3121 (relating to rape).

(3) 18 Pa.C.S. § 3122.1(b) (relating to statutory sexual assault).

(4) 18 Pa.C.S. § 3123 (relating to involuntary deviate sexual intercourse).

(5) 18 Pa.C.S. § 3124.1 (relating to sexual assault).

(6) 18 Pa.C.S. § 3124.2(a.1) [relating to institutional sexual assault].

(7) 18 Pa.C.S. § 3125 (relating to aggravated indecent assault).

(8) 18 Pa.C.S. § 3126(a)(7) (relating to indecent assault [of victim under 13 years of age] ).

(9) 18 Pa.C.S. § 4302(b) (relating to incest).

(10) 18 U.S.C. § 2241 (relating to aggravated sexual abuse).

(11) 18 U.S.C. § 2242 (relating to sexual abuse).

(12) 18 U.S.C. § 2244 [abusive sexual contact] where the victim is under 13 years of age.

(13) A comparable military offense or similar offense under the laws of another jurisdiction or foreign country or under a former law of this Commonwealth.

(14) An attempt, conspiracy or solicitation to commit an offense listed in paragraph (1), (2), (3), (4), (5), (6), (7), (8), (9), (10), (11), (12) or (13).

(15) (Reserved).

(16) Two or more convictions of offenses listed as Tier I or Tier II sexual offenses.

42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.14(d).

SORNA also establishes a statewide registry of sexual offenders to be created and maintained by the state police. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.16(a). The registry contains information provided by the sexual offender, including: names and aliases, designations used by the offender for purposes of routing or self-identification in internet communications, telephone numbers, social security number, addresses, temporary habitat if a transient, temporary lodging information, passport and documents establishing immigration status, employment information, occupational and professional licensing information, student enrollment information, motor vehicle information, and date of birth. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.16(b). The registry also contains information from the state police, including the following: physical description of the offender, including a general physical description, tattoos, scars and other identifying marks, text of the statute defining the offense for which the offender is registered, criminal history information, current photograph, fingerprints, palm prints and a DNA sample from the offender, and a photocopy of the offender's driver's license or identification card. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.16(c).

Not only does SORNA establish a registry of sexual offenders, but it also directs the state police to make information available to the public through the internet. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.28. The resulting website "[c]ontains a feature to permit a member of the public to obtain relevant information for an [offender] by a query of the internet website based on search criteria including searches for any given zip code or geographic radius set by the user." 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.28(a)(1)(i). The website also "[c]ontains a feature to allow a member of the public to receive electronic notification when [an offender] provides [updated] information [and also allows] a member of the public to receive electronic notification when [an offender] moves into or out of a geographic area chosen by the user." 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.28(a)(1)(ii). The Pennsylvania website must coordinate with the Dru Sjodin National Sex Offender Public Internet Website (https://www.nsopw.gov) and must be updated within three business days of receipt of required information. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.28(a)(1)(iii), (iv).

In addition to the offender's duty to appear at an approved registration site annually, semi-annually, or quarterly, depending upon the tier of their offense, all offenders are also required to appear in person at an approved registration site within three business days of any changes to their registration information including a change of name, residence, employment, student status, telephone number, ownership of a motor vehicle, temporary lodging, e-mail address, and information related to professional licensing. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.15(g). Offenders must also appear in person at an approved registration site within twenty-one days in advance of traveling outside the United States and must provide dates of travel, destinations, and temporary lodging. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.15(i). Furthermore, transients, i.e. homeless individuals, must appear in person monthly until a residence is established. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.15(h)(1). Offenders who fail to register, verify their information at the appropriate time, or provide accurate information are subject to prosecution and incarceration under 18 Pa.C.S. § 4915.1 (failure to comply with registration requirements). 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.21(a).

Muniz , 164 A.3d at 1203-08 (additional internal footnotes omitted). B. Muniz

In Muniz , we considered a constitutional challenge to the retroactive application of SORNA to those offenders who committed their offenses prior to its effective date of December 20, 2012. We began by examining the history of the ex post facto clause, see Muniz , 164 A.3d at 1195-96, and explained that SORNA's retroactive application could only result in an ex post facto violation if the statute constituted criminal punishment. Accordingly, we applied a two-part test, first determining whether the expressed statutory purpose is to impose punishment, and if not, whether the statutory scheme is so punitive in effect as to negate the legislature's stated non-punitive intent. See Kansas v. Hendricks , 521 U.S. 346, 361, 117 S.Ct. 2072, 138 L.Ed.2d 501 (1997). We also reviewed the decisions in Smith v. Doe , 538 U.S. 84, 123 S.Ct. 1140, 155 L.Ed.2d 164 (2003), and Commonwealth v. Williams , 574 Pa. 487, 832 A.2d 962 (2003) ( Williams II ), which applied this same framework.

In Smith , the United States Supreme Court upheld an Alaska sex offender registration statute, finding it was nonpunitive following an analysis of the Mendoza-Martinez factors. 538 U.S. at 105-06, 123 S.Ct. 1140.

Relevant here, the Williams II Court found the registration, notification, and counseling requirements imposed upon SVPs pursuant to Megan's Law II were nonpunitive. 832 A.2d at 984.

We recently summarized the Muniz Court's analysis regarding the punitive nature of SORNA in Commonwealth v. Butler , ––– Pa. ––––, 226 A.3d 972 (2020) ( Butler II ):

In Muniz , we ... first determined "the General Assembly's intent in enacting SORNA apparently was twofold: to comply with federal law; and ... ‘not to punish, but to promote public safety through a civil, regulatory scheme.’ " Id . at 1209-10, quoting Williams II , 832 A.2d at 972.

Moreover, in Muniz , we considered the Mendoza-Martinez factors and found SORNA imposed an affirmative disability or restraint upon offenders due to the onerous in-person reporting requirements for both verification and changes to an offender's registration. Id . at 1211.... We also determined in Muniz that SORNA's requirements were analogous to historical forms of punishment, specifically holding the statute's "publication provisions — when viewed in the context of our current internet-based world — to be comparable to shaming punishments" and the mandatory conditions placed on registrants to be akin to probation. Id . at 1213.

The Muniz Court next determined the fact SORNA comes into play only upon a finding of scienter was of little significance to our inquiry because "past criminal conduct is ‘a necessary beginning point’ " for statutes that are intended to protect the public. Id . at 1214, quoting Smith , 538 U.S. at 105, 123 S.Ct. 1140. We further held in Muniz that SORNA promotes the traditional aims of punishment as "the prospect of being labeled a sex offender accompanied by registration requirements and the public dissemination of an offender's personal information over the internet has a deterrent effect." Id . at 1215. In so holding, we distinguished Williams II , stating there was a clear deterrent effect since, "[c]ontrary to Megan's Law II, as analyzed in Williams II , there is not a ‘substantial period of incarceration attached to’ many of the predicate offenses requiring registration under SORNA, many of which are misdemeanors or carry relatively short maximum terms of incarceration." Id ., quoting Williams II , 832 A.2d at 978 (internal footnotes omitted). Muniz also stated

the General Assembly increased the retributive effect of SORNA as compared to Megan's Law II by "increas[ing] the length of registration, [adding] mandatory in-person reporting requirements, and allow[ing] for more private information to be displayed online." Id . at 1216 (citation omitted). We also determined in Muniz that whether or not the behavior to which SORNA applies is already a crime carries little weight, stating "where SORNA is aimed at protecting the public against recidivism, past criminal conduct is ‘a necessary beginning point.’ " Id ., quoting Smith , 538 U.S. at 105, 123 S.Ct. 1140.

Although recognizing "there are studies which find the majority of sexual offenders will not re-offend, and that sex offender registration laws are ineffective in preventing re-offense[,]" we deferred in Muniz to the General Assembly's policy determination and concluded the protection of the public from sex offenders "is a purpose other than punishment to which the statute may be rationally connected and this factor weighs in favor of finding SORNA to be nonpunitive." Id . at 1217. Lastly, we determined SORNA's registration requirements were excessive and over-inclusive in relation to the statute's intended purpose of protecting the public; it "categorize[d] a broad range of individuals as sex offenders subject to its provisions, including those convicted of offenses that do not specifically relate to a sexual act." Id . at 1218. Accordingly, we held in Muniz that SORNA's registration requirements constituted punishment and their retroactive application constituted a violation of the constitutional prohibition against ex post facto laws. Id .

Butler II , 226 A.3d at 980-81.

C. Subchapter I

In response to Muniz and the Superior Court's decision in Commonwealth v. Butler , 173 A.3d 1212 (Pa. Super. 2017) ( Butler I ) (invalidating SORNA's mechanism for determining SVP status, see 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.51(b)(4) ), rev'd ––– Pa. ––––, 226 A.3d 972 (2020), the General Assembly enacted Subchapter I, the retroactive application of which became the operative version of SORNA for those sexual offenders whose crimes occurred between April 22, 1996 and December 20, 2012. In this new statutory scheme, the General Assembly, inter alia , eliminated a number of crimes that previously triggered application of SORNA and reduced the frequency with which an offender must report in person to the Pennsylvania State Police (PSP). With regard to Subchapter I, the General Assembly declared its intent that the statute "shall not be considered as punitive." 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.51(b)(2).

To achieve its dual goals of ensuring public safety without creating another unconstitutionally punitive scheme, the General Assembly made a number of material changes to the operation of SORNA. The provisions of Subchapter I most relevant to our present analysis follow:

• Subchapter I applies to those convicted of a sexually violent offense after April 22, 1996, but before December 20, 2012. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.52(1), (2).

• Those convicted of one of the triggering offenses must register either for a period of ten years or for life. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.55(a), (b). Those offenders designated as SVPs must register for life. Id. § 9799.55(b)(3).

• Persons convicted of the following crimes are subjected to a ten-year registration period: kidnapping, indecent assault, incest, prostitution, obscene and sexual materials, sexual abuse of children, unlawful contact

with a minor, sexual exploitation of children, luring a child into a motor vehicle, and institutional sexual assault. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.55(a).

• Persons convicted of the following crimes, SVPs, and offenders convicted of two or more of the ten-year reporting crimes are subject to lifetime registration: rape, IDSI, sexual assault, aggravated indecent assault, and incest with a child under the age of twelve. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.55(b).

• A number of crimes, which were included in SORNA, and are not necessarily sexually related, were removed from the list of triggering offenses in Subchapter I, including, but not limited to, the following: unlawful restraint, false imprisonment, interference with custody of children, and invasion of privacy.

• A non-SVP must report in person once per year at an approved facility to verify their residence and be photographed. 42 Pa.C.S. §§ 9799.60(b), 9799.54(b). An SVP must report in person four times per year. Id. § 9799.60(a).

• All offenders must contact the PSP within three days of any change to their registration information, including changes to residence, employment, or education. However, Subchapter I does not require that the offender must appear in person to satisfy this obligation. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.56(a)(2).

• Generally, failure to comply with the registration requirements results in a felony prosecution. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.60(e) ; 18 Pa.C.S. § 4915.2(b), (c).

• The subchapter also establishes a website to be operated in conjunction with the statewide registry. The website will publish the following information as to each offender: (1) name and known aliases; (2) year of birth; (3) the address, municipality, county, and zip code of any residence at which the offender lives; (4) the location of any schools attended by the offender; (5) the address of any employment location; (6) a photograph of the offender that must be updated at least once per year; (7) a physical description of the offender, including sex, height, weight, eye color, hair color, and race; (8) any identifying marks, including tattoos, scars, or birthmarks; (9) the license plate number and a description for any vehicle owned or registered to the offender; (10) a status report regarding whether the offender is compliant with the terms of SORNA; (11) an indication of whether the offender's victim was a minor; (12) a description of the offense committed by the offender; (13) the dates of the offense and conviction; and (14) the location of the offender's temporary shelter and where the offender receives mail, if the offender is homeless. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.63(c).

• If a member of the public so desires, the website will alert that person by electronic notification if an offender moves in or out of the geographic area designated by the person. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.63(b)(7).

• Finally, an SVP or lifetime reporter can petition a court to be removed from the statewide registry. At the time of the petition, the SVP must not have been convicted of any crime punishable by one year or longer after being released from prison or after registering for the first time, whichever is later, for a period of twenty-five years. Also, the offender must be reviewed by a member of

the Sexual Offender Assessment Board. The SVP or lifetime reporter must demonstrate by clear and convincing evidence that he or she no longer poses a risk, or a threat of risk, to the public or any individual person. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.59(a).

III. Preliminary Procedural Issues

As we have stated, unlike Witmayer, Lacombe did not challenge the propriety of his sex offender registration status in a timely filed PCRA petition, but instead filed a "Petition to Terminate His Sexual Offender Registration Requirements." The Commonwealth and OAG contend Lacombe was required to challenge his sex offender registration status within the confines of the PCRA. See Commonwealth's Brief at 56-59; OAG's Brief at 46. Due to Lacombe's failure to file a PCRA petition, and his concomitant failure to satisfy one of the exceptions to the PCRA's timeliness requirements, see 42 Pa.C.S. § 9545(b), the Commonwealth and OAG argue the trial court lacked jurisdiction to consider Lacombe's petition. Commonwealth's Brief at 56-62; OAG's Brief at 46-48. In response, Lacombe claims "the fundamental flaw with the Commonwealth's argument is that it relies on circular logic[;]" "the court's determination of whether it has jurisdiction to decide the merits of the claim, would depend upon the court's determination of the merits of the claim." Lacombe's Brief at 36. Lacombe further claims that, "under the Commonwealth's argument, the General Assembly could enact legislation ten (10) years after a defendant's sentence became final which required all persons convicted of a sexually violent offense to be confined to an institution for an additional thirty (30) days, and the defendant would have no judicial recourse." Id . Lastly, Lacombe contends his petition was timely because it should be considered a challenge to the judgment of sentence, and thus "the one-year filing limitation applicable to PCRA[ petitions] would begin to run from the effective date of the legislation that imposed the challenged registration requirements[.]" Id . at 36-37.

This Court has not yet required that sexual offender registration statutes be challenged through the PCRA or some other procedural mechanism. Indeed, we have consistently decided cases regarding sexual offender registration statutes that were challenged via different types of filings. See Muniz , supra (successful challenge to constitutionality of SORNA via direct appeal), Commonwealth v. Martinez , 637 Pa. 208, 147 A.3d 517, 523 (2016) (successful challenge to increase of registration term through "Petition to Enforce Plea Agreement or for a Writ of Habeas Corpus" where PCRA petition would have been untimely), A.S. v. Pa. State Police , 636 Pa. 403, 143 A.3d 896, 903 n.7 (2016) (successful challenge to registration term through mandamus action against PSP), Williams II , supra (unsuccessful challenge to constitutionality of Megan's Law II through "Motion for Extraordinary Relief" and "Motion for Relief"). Our approach in this regard takes into account the fact that frequent changes to sexual offender registration statutes, along with more onerous requirements and retroactive application, complicate registrants’ ability to challenge new requirements imposed years after their sentences become final.

This is especially so under the PCRA as many registrants, Lacombe included, would be ineligible for relief on timeliness grounds. See 42 Pa.C.S. § 9545(b)(1) (PCRA petition must be filed within one year of judgment of sentence becoming final unless exception applies). Other registrants may be ineligible because their sentence has expired while their registration requirements continue. See 42 Pa.C.S. § 9543(a)(1) (PCRA petitioner must be serving sentence to be eligible for relief). Both situations arise from the fact that the registration period does not begin until registrants are released from prison, which may be well after their sentence has become final or may signal the completion of their sentence. Accordingly, we decline to find the PCRA, or any other procedural mechanism, is the exclusive method for challenging sexual offender registration statutes and we thus conclude the trial court had jurisdiction to consider Lacombe's "Petition to Terminate His Sexual Offender Registration Requirements."

IV. Ex Post Facto Analysis

As stated above, the threshold question for determining whether the retroactive application of Subchapter I to appellees violates the constitutional prohibition against ex post facto laws is whether the requirements of Subchapter I constitute criminal punishment. See Muniz , 164 A.3d at 1208 ("Our decision regarding violation of [the ex post facto ] clause depends on the determination of whether SORNA's retroactive application to [Muniz] constitutes punishment."). Accordingly, we apply the two-part analysis employed in Muniz and previous cases:

We first consider whether the General Assembly's "intent was to impose punishment, and, if not, whether the statutory scheme is nonetheless so punitive either in purpose or effect as to negate the legislature's nonpunitive intent." Williams II , 832 A.2d at 971. If we find the General Assembly intended to enact a civil scheme, we then must determine whether the law is punitive in effect by considering the Mendoza-Martinez factors. Id . at 972. We recognize only the "clearest proof" may establish that a law is punitive in effect. [ Commonwealth v. Lee , 594 Pa. 266, 935 A.2d 865, 876-77 (2007) ]. Furthermore, in determining whether a statute is civil or punitive, we must examine the law's entire statutory scheme. Smith , 538 U.S. at 92, 123 S.Ct. 1140.

Id .

A. Intent of General Assembly

The parties do not dispute that the General Assembly's purpose in enacting Subchapter I was non-punitive, that is, it intended to enact a civil regulatory scheme. The General Assembly stated the purpose of Subchapter I is to "[p]rotect the safety and general welfare of the people of this Commonwealth by providing for registration, community notification and access to information regarding sexually violent predators and offenders who are about to be released from custody and will live in or near their neighborhood." 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.51(b)(1). Further, the General Assembly expressly declared that Subchapter I "shall not be construed as punitive." Id . § 9799.51(b)(2). We therefore proceed to the second part of our ex post facto analysis.

B. Mendoza-Martinez Factors

i. Whether Subchapter I Involves an Affirmative Disability or Restraint

The Commonwealth argues Subchapter I does not involve an affirmative disability or restraint because its requirements are minimal and much less onerous than those imposed by SORNA. Commonwealth's Brief at 28, 33. The Commonwealth specifically points out the fact that Subchapter I reduces in-person reporting requirements, the length of registration, and the list of registerable offenses as compared to SORNA, and adds a removal mechanism. Id . at 30-31.

The briefs filed by the Commonwealth in the present appeals are nearly identical with regard to the Commonwealth's Mendoza-Martinez analysis; we use the brief filed in Lacombe's case to summarize the Commonwealth's arguments. We also provide arguments of the OAG, where necessary, using the brief it filed in Lacombe's case.

Lacombe argues Subchapter I's reduction of in-person reporting is minimal and the removal mechanism is illusory as it is nearly impossible to comply with and achieve. Lacombe's Brief at 17. Lacombe ultimately contends the "slight reduction in the frequency of in-person reporting for non-SVPs and the illusory procedure for removal from the registry fall[ ] woefully short of alleviating the affirmative disabilities and restraints that so concerned this Court in ... Muniz ." Id . at 18. Witmayer adds that Subchapter I also imposes secondary disabilities and restraints impacting "a person's social and psychological well-being, his ability to find and keep housing, employment and schooling, the likelihood he will be subject to violence, and his ability to travel out of state[,]" all of which "flow directly and inevitably from registration." Witmayer's Brief at 35.

We agree with Commonwealth as to this factor. Subchapter I has significantly reduced in-person reporting requirements that alleviate many of the concerns expressed in Muniz , and we thus conclude Subchapter I does not impose an affirmative disability or restraint. Although in Muniz we distinguished SORNA from the statute at issue in Smith due to SORNA's in-person reporting requirements, see Muniz , 164 A.3d at 1210, we focused on the frequency of in-person reporting required under SORNA. In Muniz , we specifically stated as follows: "[Muniz] ... is now required to appear in person at a registration site four times a year, a minimum of 100 times over the next twenty-five years, extending for the remainder of his life. In fact, this is the minimum number of times [Muniz] will have to appear in person, and does not account for the times he must appear due to his ‘free’ choices including moving to a new address or changing his appearance." Id . at 1210-11 (internal citations, quotations, and footnote omitted).

The Alaska statute, which did not require in-person reporting, was determined not to involve an affirmative disability or restraint. Smith , 538 U.S. at 99-101, 123 S.Ct. 1140.

Subchapter I offenders are now required to report in person annually rather than quarterly, 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.60(b), which limits the in-person appearances of lifetime registrants to twenty-five times over a twenty-five year period as compared to 100 times over a twenty-five year period, which was determined to be an affirmative disability or restraint in Muniz . The currently-required annual appearance is necessary to maintain a useful updated photograph on the Megan's Law website. Furthermore, Subchapter I offenders are no longer required to appear in person to report changes to registration-related information. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.56(a)(2). As well, the majority of these offenders are subject only to a ten-year reporting requirement rather than the fifteen or twenty-five year periods considered in Muniz , compare 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.55 with 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.15(a) (effective Dec. 20, 2012 through Feb. 20, 2018), and lifetime registrants may now petition for removal from the registry after twenty-five years. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.59. The in-person reporting requirements that remain in Subchapter I are minimal and clearly necessary, and we thus find Subchapter I does not impose any direct affirmative disability or restraint. Additionally, "minor and indirect" restraints and disabilities, such as those cited by Witmayer, are nonpunitive. See Smith , 538 U.S. at 100, 123 S.Ct. 1140 ("If the disability or restraint is minor and indirect, its effects are unlikely to be punitive."). Accordingly, we conclude this factor weighs in favor of finding Subchapter I nonpunitive.

Although the statute does not include any mandatory method for reporting changes to registration-related information, it is clear that Subchapter I offenders may report such changes by mail using a change of information form provided by the PSP on the Megan's Law Website, which includes instructions; the form states it is only for use by Subchapter I offenders as those subject to Subchapter H must appear in person to update their registration-related information. See Sexual Offender Update Form, https://www.pameganslaw.state.pa.us/Documents/Sexual%20Offender%20Registration%20-%20SP%204-218%20Public.pdf (last visited May 13, 2020).

The dissent suggests the fact that yearly in-person reports are necessary to maintain a current registry is irrelevant to the "prior assessment of whether the statute imposes a disability or restraint," and requires a "complicated and elusive line-drawing exercise." Dissenting Opinion, at –––– – ––––. We disagree with this characterization and emphasize that the benefit of the annual reporting requirement, and its infrequency, combine to distinguish our analysis in this case from Muniz , and a sexual offender registration statute requiring "two" or "three" in-person appearances per year is simply not before this Court. Id . at ––––.

ii. Whether Subchapter I's Requirements Have Been Historically Regarded as Punishment

The Commonwealth argues "Subchapter I's requirements are nothing like colonial era punishments" as they do not "involve physical pain or direct public confrontation, nor are they meant to stigmatize offenders." Commonwealth's Brief at 34. Noting the Muniz Court came to a different conclusion regarding the statutory requirements considered therein, the Commonwealth contends Subchapter I is distinguishable from SORNA as to this factor because the number of offenders subject to registration has been reduced, less disclosure of information about offenders is required, see 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.63(c), and offenders can now prove rehabilitation by way of the removal mechanism. Commonwealth's Brief at 36-37. With regard to probation, the Commonwealth argues the Muniz Court disregarded "critical procedural differences between violations of probation and violations for non-compliance" such as the fact that "because noncompliance with registration requirements is its own offense, it comes with all the safeguards attendant to the criminal process[.]" Id . at 38-39.

Section 9799.63(c) is titled "Information permitted to be disclosed regarding individuals[,]" 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.63(c) (emphasis added), as compared with Section 9799.28(b) which is titled "Required information." 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.28(b) (emphasis added). However, as discussed below, Section 9799.63(c) states "the Internet website shall contain the following information ...[,]" which requires such information be posted on the internet just as in Section 9799.28(b). 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.63(c) (emphasis added).

In response, Lacombe contends "[t]he internet registry prescribed by Subchapter I at [ Section] 9799.63, is indistinguishable from the internet registry under SORNA" as Section 9799.63(c), by using the word "shall," still mandates that registration information be posted on the internet. Lacombe's Brief at 20-21. As such, Lacombe argues "this Court's analysis of [SORNA's similarity to public shaming due to] the internet registry in Muniz applies with equal force and effect to Subchapter I." Id . at 20. With respect to probation, Lacombe contends Subchapter I still requires reporting and other conditions which are similar to probation and the Muniz analysis should control. Id . at 24-25.

Witmayer's arguments regarding this factor are substantially similar to those of Lacombe.

We reject the Commonwealth's argument on this factor and find no reason to deviate from our corresponding analysis in Muniz . In Muniz , we stated:

The United States Supreme Court has distinguished colonial-era public shaming punishments from sex offender registration laws by noting public shaming "involved more than the dissemination of information" but also "held the person up before his fellow citizens for face-to-face shaming or expelled him from the community." Smith , 538 U.S. at 98, 123 S.Ct. 1140. The Smith Court found the sex offender information disseminated through the Alaska statute is accurate and, for the most part, already public. Id . The Court noted the publicity may cause embarrassment or ostracism for the convicted, but found "the publicity and resulting stigma [is not] an integral part of the objective of the regulatory scheme." Id . at 99, 123 S.Ct. 1140. The Court also stated the fact the information is posted on the internet did not alter its conclusion since the intent of the posting is to inform the public for its own safety, the website itself does not provide the public with a means to shame the offender, and members of the public must affirmatively seek out the information. Id .

As stated above, we recognize the significance of the Smith Court's decision with regard to its analysis of the Alaska statute. However, Smith was decided in an earlier technological environment. The concurring expression by now-Justice Donohue in [ Commonwealth v. Perez , 97 A.3d 747 (Pa. Super. 2014) ] has particular force on this point:

The environment has changed significantly with the advancements in technology since the Supreme Court's 2003 decision in Smith . As of the most recent report by the United States Census Bureau, approximately 75 percent of households in the United States have internet access. Yesterday's face-to-face shaming punishment can now be accomplished online, and an individual's presence in cyberspace is omnipresent. The public internet website utilized by the Pennsylvania State Police broadcasts worldwide, for an extended period of time, the personal identification information of individuals who have served their "sentences." This exposes registrants to ostracism and harassment without any mechanism to prove rehabilitation—even through the clearest proof. In my opinion, the extended registration period and the worldwide dissemination of registrants’ information authorized by SORNA now outweighs the public safety interest of the government so as to disallow a finding that it is merely regulatory.

Perez , 97 A.3d at 765-66 (Donohue, J., concurring).

Furthermore, although the Smith Court ultimately rejected the argument Alaska's registration system was like probation because it did not impose mandatory conditions, the High Court nevertheless recognized the argument has "some force" and the argument is therefore even more compelling where SORNA does impose such conditions. See Id . at 763 (Donohue, J. concurring), citing Smith , 538 U.S. at 101, 123 S.Ct. 1140. It is clear the Alaska statute at issue in Smith and SORNA are materially

different in this regard. As our analysis of the similarity to probation would be nearly identical to Justice Donohue's analysis of the issue in Perez , we again quote from her concurring opinion with minimal, bracketed, differences arising out of appellant's status as a Tier III offender:

In contrast, the mandatory in-person verification requirement in Section 9799.15(e) not only creates an affirmative restraint upon [appellant], requiring him to appear at a designated facility a minimum of [100] times over the next 25 years[, extending for the remainder of his life,] as a Tier [III] offender, but also greatly resembles the periodic meetings with probation officers imposed on probationers. ... [B]ecause SORNA differs significantly from the statute at issue in Smith , these disparities must be considered.

In [ Williams II ,] the Pennsylvania Supreme Court found that probation has historically been considered a traditional form of punishment. Williams [II] , 832 A.2d at 977. Probation entails a set of mandatory conditions imposed on an individual who has either been released after serving a prison sentence, or has been sentenced to probation in lieu of prison time. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9754. These conditions can include psychiatric treatment, limitations on travel, and notifying a probation officer when any change of employment or residency occurs. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9754(c). Probationers are also subject to incarceration for a violation of any condition of their probation. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9771.

Like the conditions imposed on probationers, registrants under SORNA must notify the state police of a change in residence or employment. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.15(g). Offenders also face incarceration for any non-compliance with the registration requirements. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.22(a). Furthermore, SORNA requires registrants who do not have a fixed place of work to provide "general travel routes and general areas where the individual works" in order to be in compliance. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.16. The Supreme Court in Smith stated that "[a] sex offender who fails to comply with the reporting requirement may be subjected to criminal prosecution for that failure, but any prosecution is a proceeding separate from the individual's original offense." Smith , 538 U.S. at 101-02, 123 S.Ct. 1140. However, violations for noncompliance with both probation and SORNA registration requirements are procedurally parallel. Both require further factual findings to determine whether a violation has actually occurred. 42 Pa.C.S. §§ 9771(d), 9799.21. Similarly, but for the original underlying offense, neither would be subject to the mandatory conditions from which the potential violation stems. The parallels between the SORNA registration requirements and probation lead me to conclude that factor two of the [ Mendoza-Martinez ] test leans towards a finding that SORNA is punitive.

See Perez , 97 A.3d at 763-64 (Donohue, J. concurring).

We conclude the weighing process with regard to this Mendoza-Martinez factor presents a much closer case than the Smith Court's analysis of Alaska's registration statute in 2003. We consider SORNA's publication provisions—when viewed in the context of our current internet-based world—to be comparable to shaming punishments. We also find SORNA and the Alaska statute are materially different in their mandatory conditions such that SORNA is more akin

to probation. We therefore hold this factor weighs in favor of finding SORNA's effect to be punitive.

Muniz , 164 A.3d at 1212-13.

Similar to SORNA, Subchapter I directs the PSP "shall" operate and maintain a publicly accessible internet website and upload a plethora of information about each offender. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.63(b), (c). Subchapter I further directs the PSP to "develop, implement and maintain a process which allows members of the public to receive electronic notification when an individual required to register under [Subchapter I] moves into or out of a user-designated location." Id . § 9799.63(b)(7). As such, we are constrained to find the requirements of Subchapter I are akin to public shaming. We are also persuaded the requirements of Subchapter I are akin to probation; just as with SORNA, Subchapter I imposes mandatory conditions such as the in-person verification requirements, 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.60, a requirement that offenders notify the PSP of changes to their registration information, 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.56(a)(2), and penalties for noncompliance, 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.60(e) ; 18 Pa.C.S. § 4915.2(b), (c). Accordingly, we find this factor weighs in favor of finding Subchapter I punitive.

iii. Whether Subchapter I Comes into Play Only on a Finding of Scienter

The parties agree, as do we, that "this factor is of little significance to our inquiry." Muniz , 164 A.3d at 1214 (citation omitted). As stated in Muniz , "where the concern of a sex offender registration statute like SORNA is protecting the public against recidivism, past criminal conduct is ‘a necessary beginning point.’ " Id ., quoting Smith , 538 U.S. at 105, 123 S.Ct. 1140. As the changes effected by Subchapter I provide no reason to depart from Muniz with regard to this factor, we accordingly assign it little weight.

iv. Whether the Operation of Subchapter I Promotes the Traditional Aims of Punishment

The Commonwealth contends Subchapter I does not promote deterrence and claims this case is distinguishable from Muniz since "Subchapter I mandates a ten-year period of registration for twelve offenses, many of which are felonies carrying maximum sentences of as much as seven to twenty years[,]" which makes it "unlikely that the prospect of subsequent registration for a limited period of time would have a significant deterrent effect on a sexual offender." Commonwealth's Brief at 44. Regarding retribution, the Commonwealth argues Subchapter I does not operate to affix culpability for prior criminal conduct, but instead "serves the remedial purpose of protecting innocent persons from victimization[.]" Id . at 46 (internal citation and quotation omitted). The OAG adds that the criminal penalty for failure to comply with Subchapter I's registration requirements is not relevant to determining whether Subchapter I promotes the traditional aims of punishment because "[t]he mere fact that a statute makes failure to comply with a civil requirement — such as paying one's taxes — criminal, does not transform the underlying civil component into criminal punishment." OAG's Brief at 38.

Lacombe argues the Muniz Court's concerns regarding deterrence and retribution have not been alleviated with the passage of Subchapter I because those convicted of certain registerable offenses "might very well receive a probationary sentence, but would be required to register as a sex offender for ten [ ] years." Lacombe's Brief at 26-27. Witmayer adds that "disproportionate retribution is an obvious goal served by [Subchapter I]" as "[t]he underlying conviction is the necessary and the sufficient trigger for registration; the individual cannot avoid retribution by doing nothing further." Witmayer's Brief at 41. However, Witmayer concedes that Subchapter I "cannot seek deterrence as a rationale for the law as the law is exclusively retroactive." Id .

We agree with appellees that Subchapter I promotes retribution just as we found SORNA to promote retribution in Muniz . 164 A.3d at 1216. However, we also agree with Witmayer that Subchapter I "cannot seek deterrence as a rationale for the law as the law is exclusively retroactive." Witmayer's Brief at 41. In other words, Subchapter I registrants cannot be deterred from committing the criminal activity for which they are required to register since those crimes have already occurred.

Further, even if Subchapter I was applied prospectively only, it would still be distinguishable from SORNA; Subchapter I includes only the "mere presence" of a deterrent purpose. See Smith , 538 U.S. at 102, 123 S.Ct. 1140 ("the mere presence of a deterrent purpose" does not "render[ ] such sanctions criminal") (citation and quotation omitted). The Muniz Court focused on (and found problematic) SORNA's application to offenders convicted of a multitude of minor crimes, including many having no sexual component at all. 164 A.3d at 1215. In Subchapter I, however, the General Assembly removed these minor, non-sexual crimes. See id . at 1218. Although there remains some imbalance between the registration terms and the maximum penalties prescribed to each predicate offense covered by Subchapter I (for example, persons convicted of indecent assault graded as a first-degree misdemeanor, 18 Pa.C.S. § 3126, must register for a period of ten years pursuant to 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.55(a), but only face a maximum prison term of five years under 18 Pa.C.S. § 106(b)(6) ), this imbalance is minimal and the problems exposed in Muniz have been resolved. For instance, the predicate offenses under Subchapter I no longer include federal crimes that have a maximum penalty of two years of incarceration, see Muniz , 164 A.3d at 1215 n.20, and most predicate offenses in Subchapter I are felonies. See OAG's Brief at 36 n.26 ("Fourteen registerable crimes are felony offenses. 18 Pa.C.S. §§ 2901(b), 4302(a), 4302(b)(1), 4302(b)(2), 5902(b.1), 6312(d.1), 6318(b), 6320(b), 3121, 3123, 3124.1, 3124.2, 3125(c), 3126(b)(3). Two registerable crimes have the potential to be either a misdemeanor or a felony. Id . at §§ 2910(a.1), 5902(c). Two registerable crimes are misdemeanors of the first degree, which carry a potential of five years’ imprisonment. Id . at §§ 3126, 5903(h)(1) ; see also id . at § 1104(1)."). Moreover, the registration term for these offenses is only ten years, 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.55, as opposed to fifteen or twenty-five years in SORNA. 42 Pa.C.S. §§ 9799.14(b) -(c) (effective Sept. 2, 2014 through Feb. 20, 2018), 9799.15(a) (effective Dec. 20, 2012 through Feb. 20, 2018).

The same can be said for the removal mechanism. Although the removal mechanism provides an incentive to refrain from commission of new criminal offenses, this provision clearly does not deter the initial criminal activity. Furthermore, we agree with the OAG that the penalties for failure to comply with registration, 18 Pa.C.S. § 4915.2, do not promote deterrence. See OAG's Brief at 38 (fact that statute criminalizes failure to comply with civil requirement does not transform underlying civil component into criminal punishment). Accordingly, we weigh this factor in favor of finding Subchapter I punitive but give it much less weight than in Muniz because Subchapter I is not aimed at deterrence. v. Whether the Behavior to which Subchapter I Applies is Already a Crime

In his dissent, Justice Wecht criticizes what he deems an unsupported "limited view of deterrence[,]" Dissenting Opinion, at ––––, but his reliance on our statement in Muniz that " ‘the prospect of being labeled a sex offender accompanied by registration requirements and the public dissemination of an offender's personal information over the internet has a deterrent effect’ " actually undermines his more expansive view. Id ., quoting Muniz , 164 A.3d at 1215. The reference in Muniz to the "prospect" of becoming a registered sex offender speaks specifically to individuals who have not yet committed the initial criminal activity and may thus be deterred by the statute from engaging in such activity.

Although Lacombe and Witmayer argue this factor should weigh in favor of finding Subchapter I punitive, they concede it is of little weight in our analysis. In Muniz , we stated "[a]s with the third Mendoza-Martinez factor discussed above, this factor carries little weigh in the balance. We again recognize where SORNA is aimed at protecting the public against recidivism, past criminal conduct is ‘a necessary beginning point.’ " 164 A.3d at 1216, quoting Smith , 538 U.S. at 105, 123 S.Ct. 1140. As stated in our discussion of the third Mendoza-Martinez factor in the present matter, Subchapter I provides no reason to depart from our analysis in Muniz and thus, we assign little weight to this factor.

vi. Whether there is an Alternative Purpose to which Subchapter I may be Rationally Connected

The parties do not dispute that there is an alternative purpose, other than punishment, to which Subchapter I is rationally connected. As stated above, the General Assembly declared that the purpose of Subchapter I is to "[p]rotect the safety and general welfare of the people of this Commonwealth by providing for registration, community notification and access to information regarding sexually violent predators and offenders who are about to be released from custody and will live in or near their neighborhood." 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.51(b)(1). Such purpose is based on the General Assembly's finding that "sexually violent predators and offenders pose a high risk of engaging in further offenses even after being released from incarceration or commitments, and protection of the public from this type of offender is a paramount government interest." Id . § 9799.51(a)(2). As we stated in Muniz , "[a]lthough there are contrary scientific studies, we note there is by no means a consensus, and as such, we defer to the General Assembly's findings on this issue." 164 A.3d at 1217. Accordingly, we conclude there is a purpose other than punishment to which Subchapter I may be rationally connected — protecting and informing the public regarding sexual offenders the General Assembly considers dangerous — and this factor clearly weighs in favor of finding Subchapter I nonpunitive.

These findings by the General Assembly were not challenged by appellees here as they were in Torsilieri .

vii. Whether Subchapter I is Excessive in Relation to the Alternative Purpose Assigned

The Commonwealth argues Subchapter I is not excessive, but reasonable in light of its stated purpose, "given that Subchapter I has slashed its list of registerable offenses, the majority of which contain a sexual component, along with the reduced in-person reporting, and the mechanism for removal from the registry[.]" Commonwealth's Brief at 53-54. As such, the Commonwealth contends "Subchapter I's requirements are not so extremely onerous in relation to their purpose as to constitute punishment." Id . at 54 (internal citation and quotation omitted).

Lacombe claims "Subchapter I is sweepingly over broad" as it "still requires the blanket registration of all offenders convicted of a predicate enumerated offense regardless of that individual's actual likelihood, or continued likelihood of reoffending" and, "with the exception of the illusory process ... for being removed from the registry after twenty-five [ ] years, Subchapter I offers no procedure by which [an offender] can show, in the first instance, that he or she does not pose an actual risk of re-offense." Lacombe's Brief at 29-30.

Witmayer's arguments regarding this factor are substantially similar to those of Lacombe.

We are substantially aligned with the Commonwealth as to this factor. The General Assembly removed a plethora of previously qualifying offenses when it enacted Subchapter I, compare 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.59 with 42 Pa.C.S. §§ 9799.14(b) - (d) (effective Sept. 2, 2014 through Feb. 20, 2018), and thus, made the new enactment much less likely to "result in individuals ... who in fact do not pose the type of risk to the community that the General Assembly sought to guard against" being labeled as sex offenders. Williams II , 832 A.2d at 983. The General Assembly also lowered the registration term for many offenses from fifteen and twenty-five years to ten years, compare 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.55 with 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.15(a) (effective Dec. 20, 2012 through Feb. 20, 2018), and significantly reduced the in-person reporting requirements so that Subchapter I offenders must only report in person annually, compare 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.60(b) with 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.15(e) (effective Dec. 20, 2012 through Feb. 20, 2018). And, as stated previously, this latter requirement is necessary to capture and upload a current photograph on the Megan's Law website. Also necessary for public protection is the prompt reporting of any changes to the Subchapter I offender's registration information, see 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.56(a)(2), and prosecution for failure to comply under 18 Pa.C.S § 4915.1 is also necessary to ensure compliance with the mandates of Subchapter I. Moreover, Subchapter I provides a removal mechanism for lifetime registrants, the absence of which has created excessiveness concerns for this Court. See Williams II , 832 A.2d at 982-83 ("A reasonable argument could be made that, to avoid excessiveness, the Legislature was required to provide some means ... to invoke judicial review[.] ... This aspect of the statute may be particularly problematic[.]"). For these reasons, we find the Subchapter I requirements are necessary, rather than excessive, in relation to the statute's alternative assigned purpose of protecting the public from sex offenders. Accordingly, this factor weighs heavily in favor of finding Subchapter I nonpunitive.

viii. Balancing of the Factors

As the above Mendoza-Martinez analysis clearly reflects, Subchapter I effected significant changes from the original version of SORNA, retroactive application of which we found unconstitutional in Muniz . To summarize, we find three of the five factors weigh in favor of finding Subchapter I nonpunitive. Additionally, we give little weight to the fact Subchapter I promotes the traditional aims of punishment and give significant weight to the fact Subchapter I is narrowly tailored to its nonpunitive purpose of protecting the public. As we have not found the requisite "clearest proof" Subchapter I is punitive, we may not "override legislative intent and transform what has been denominated a civil remedy into a criminal penalty[.]" Hudson v. United States , 522 U.S. 93, 100, 118 S.Ct. 488, 139 L.Ed.2d 450 (1997), quoting United States v. Ward , 448 U.S. 242, 249, 100 S.Ct. 2636, 65 L.Ed.2d 742 (1980) (internal quotations omitted).

V. Conclusion

We hold Subchapter I does not constitute criminal punishment, and the ex post facto claims forwarded by appellees necessarily fail. See Muniz , 164 A.3d at 1208 ("Our decision regarding violation of [the ex post facto ] clause depends on a determination of whether SORNA's retroactive application to [Muniz] constitutes punishment."). Accordingly, we reverse the orders of the Montgomery County Court of Common Pleas relieving appellees of their duty to comply with Subchapter I.

Chief Justice Saylor and Justices Baer and Todd join the opinion.

Justice Mundy files a concurring opinion.

Justice Wecht files a concurring and dissenting opinion in which Justice Donohue joins.

CONCURRING OPINION

JUSTICE MUNDY

I join the majority's holding that "Subchapter I [of the Sex Offender Registration and Notification Act (SORNA), 42 Pa.C.S. §§ 9799.51 - 9799.75 ] is nonpunitive and does not violate the constitutional prohibition against ex post facto laws." Majority Opinion at –––– – ––––. However, I do not agree that the online registration requirements resemble colonial era public shaming punishments under the second factor of the test set forth in Kennedy v. Mendoza-Martinez, 372 U.S. 144, 83 S.Ct. 554, 9 L.Ed.2d 644 (1963). I recognize that in Commonwealth v. Muniz , 640 Pa. 699, 164 A.3d 1189 (2017) (OAJC), this Court concluded that those online registration requirements resemble colonial era public shaming punishments due to the widespread accessibility of the internet, thus distinguishing the United States Supreme Court's rationale in Smith v. Doe , 538 U.S. 84, 123 S.Ct. 1140, 155 L.Ed.2d 164 (2003). Accordingly, I do not fault the majority for applying Muniz ’s rationale in this case. In my view, however, the widespread availability of the internet was never a compelling basis to distinguish Smith . The purpose of the online registry is to provide the public with information necessary for its safety. It appears illogical to therefore conclude that accessibility to that information weighs in favor of finding the statute punitive. The internet aspect of sex offender registries is also a federally mandated feature. See 34 U.S.C. § 20920 ("Except as provided in this section, each jurisdiction shall make available on the Internet, in a manner that is readily accessible to all jurisdictions and to the public, all information about each sex offender in the registry."). This requirement was deemed essential with the understanding that such information would be widely accessible to the public. Because I would find that Subchapter I's requirements do not resemble public shaming punishments, I would weigh this factor against finding the statute punitive, despite the fact that the statute's requirements nonetheless resemble probation. Accordingly, I respectfully concur.

Rather, I am persuaded by Chief Justice Saylor's dissent in Muniz explaining that "focusing on that narrow metric diminishes the central reasoning that the Supreme Court employed [in Smith ] in finding that worldwide internet access to offender registry information did not constitute punishment, as well as overlooks internet accessibility available at that time in other places, such as public libraries and workplaces." Muniz , 164 A.3d at 1233-34 (Saylor, C.J. dissenting).

640 Pa. 699, 164 A.3d 1189, 1193 (2017) (plurality).

CONCURRING AND DISSENTING OPINION

JUSTICE WECHT

In Commonwealth v. Muniz ,¹ this Court determined that the regulatory scheme imposed upon certain sexual offenders by the Sex Offender Registration and Notification Act ("SORNA") was punitive in effect, and, when imposed retroactively, violated the Ex Post Facto Clauses of both the United States Constitution and the Pennsylvania Constitution. Shortly thereafter, the Pennsylvania Superior Court extended our Muniz rationale to invalidate SORNA's provisions governing the determination of whether a particular offender is a "sexually violent predator" ("SVP").

42 Pa.C.S. §§ 9799.10 -9799.41.

The prohibition on ex post facto laws appears twice in the United States Constitution. The first proscription is found in Article 1, Section 9, and serves as a limitation on Congress’ authority to pass laws: "No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed." U.S. Const. art. 1, § 9. The limitation appears for the second time in Article 1, Section 10, and, in this usage, constitutes a restriction on the power of the states: "No State shall ... pass any Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law, or Law impairing the Obligation of Contracts, or grant any Title of Nobility." U.S. Const. art. 1, § 10.
Pennsylvania's ex post facto provision is found in Article 1, Section 17 of our Constitution, and states that: "No ex post facto law, nor any law impairing the obligation of contracts, or making irrevocable any grant of special privileges or immunities, shall be passed." Pa. Const. art 1, § 17.

Commonwealth v. Butler , 173 A.3d 1212 (Pa. Super. 2017) ("Butler I "), reversed by Commonwealth v. Butler , ––– Pa. ––––, 226 A.3d 972 (2020) ("Butler II ").

In response, the General Assembly returned to the drawing board and enacted a new—albeit somewhat familiar—regulatory system, one purporting to remedy the constitutional defects that doomed the version of SORNA at issue in these two rulings. The new legislation bifurcated SORNA within the Sentencing Code into two distinct subchapters: Subchapter H and Subchapter I. Subchapter H governs offenders whose triggering crimes were committed on or after December 20, 2012. Subchapter I applies retroactively to those whose offenses occurred before that date.

Subchapter H is not at issue in this case. We consider a challenge to the constitutionality of that subchapter in Commonwealth v. Torsilieri , No. 37 MAP 2018.

Claude Lacombe and Michael Witmayer committed their crimes prior to December 20, 2012. Both men are subject to the retroactive application of Subchapter I. After both prevailed before the court of common pleas in their ex post facto challenges to the application of this new scheme, the Commonwealth asked this Court to evaluate the constitutionality of Subchapter I and to decide whether the statute must meet the same fate that befell SORNA in Muniz .

See 42 Pa.C.S. § 722(7) ("The Supreme Court shall have exclusive jurisdiction of appeals from final orders ... [in m]atters where the court of common pleas has held invalid as repugnant to the Constitution, treaties or laws of the United States, or to the Constitution of this Commonwealth, any treaty or law of the United States or any provision of the Constitution of, or of any statute of, this Commonwealth, or any provision of any home rule charter.").

The Majority concludes that the PCRA court (and, hence, this Court on appeal) has jurisdiction to consider the complex legal issues presented in this case. See Maj. Op. at –––– – ––––. I agree with that conclusion.

The Majority then proceeds to find no constitutional defect in Subchapter I. I do not agree with this determination. The General Assembly's alterations to the manner in which Pennsylvania regulates sexual offenders are insufficient to overcome the punitive nature of the scheme set forth in Subchapter I. To be sure, with the enactment of Subchapter I, the General Assembly moved incrementally in a constitutional direction. But close examination compels the conclusion that the amended statute does not go far enough to transform the punitive scheme into a regulatory one. Because Subchapter I remains punitive, and because it is mandated to apply retroactively, it must again be stricken as an unconstitutional ex post facto law. I respectfully dissent from the Majority's contrary conclusion.

I. Relevant Legal History

The factual and procedural background of these two cases largely is immaterial to the legal issue presented herein, and the Majority ably outlines the most relevant aspects of that background. The legal history that precedes these appeals is a different matter. In order to assess the constitutionality of Subchapter I, it first is necessary to review the principal aspects of the winding, interrelated history of Pennsylvania's sexual offender regulatory statutes and this Court's cases interpreting those statutes in light of the constitutional ban on ex post facto laws. That history is linked to, and lays the foundation for, my analysis of the legal issue presented here.

See Maj. Op. at –––– – ––––.

Our General Assembly enacted Pennsylvania's first version of Megan's Law in 1995, known since in this Commonwealth as "Megan's Law I." See, e.g. , Commonwealth v. Lee , 594 Pa. 266, 935 A.2d 865, 872 (2007) (citing cases and statutory history of "Megan's Law"). The landmark legislation consisted of two principal components. One part governed convicted sexual offenders who were deemed to be SVPs, and the other part applied to those offenders who were not so designated. See Commonwealth v. Donald Williams , 557 Pa. 285, 733 A.2d 593, 595 (1999) (" Williams I "). The obligations imposed upon an SVP under Megan's Law I differed substantially from those required of non-SVP offenders. In Williams I , we described those distinctions in detail:

There is a distinct difference under [Megan's Law I] between the requirements and sanctions applicable to those persons who are classified as sexually violent predators and those who are not. Those offenders who are not classified as sexually violent predators are subject to the registration requirements set forth as Section 9793 of [Megan's Law I]. This provision requires that an offender register a current address with the Pennsylvania State Police upon release from incarceration, being placed on parole, the commencement of a sentence of intermediate punishment or probation, or under the parole board's supervision. The State Police must be notified of an offender's change of address and a current address must be registered. The period of registration under this provision is ten years and failure to comply with the provision is a felony of the third degree.

If a person is classified as a sexually violent predator under [Megan's Law I], he or she is subjected to much broader registration and notification requirements. Specifically, [Megan's Law I] requires potentially lifetime registration of a current address with the State Police "unless the court determines the person is no longer a sexually violent predator." Verification of a current address is required every 90 days.

[Megan's Law I also] specifies that the crime victim of a sexually violent predator shall be given written notice when an offender registers an address initially, and when a change of address is provided.

[The statute] provides for extensive public notification of the name, address, offense, designation and photograph of sexually violent predators. [It] specifies that notification of the foregoing information is to be given to the neighbors of sexually violent predators, the director of county child and youth services where the sexually violent predator resides, the superintendent of each school district in the area, including private and parochial schools, the director of licensed day care facilities in the municipality where the sexually violent predator resides and the president of any college, university and community college located within 1,000 feet of a sexually violent predator's residence.

In addition to the foregoing, [Megan's Law I] provides for enhanced punishment of sexually violent predators. Specifically, [Megan's Law I] provides that once a person is classified as a sexually violent predator, "the offender's maximum term of confinement for any offense or conviction ... shall be increased to the offender's lifetime notwithstanding lesser statutory maximum penalties for these offenses." [The statute] requires sexually violent predators to attend monthly counseling sessions and ... provides that

[n]otwithstanding any other provision of law to the contrary, when a person who has been designated as a sexually violent predator is convicted of a subsequent sexually violent offense, the mandatory sentence shall be life imprisonment.

Id. at 595-96 (internal citations and footnotes omitted).

Understanding the critical significance of the SVP determination for purposes of Megan's Law I, we considered the constitutionality of the prescribed method by which an offender was so designated. Id. at 596. Megan's Law I set forth a list of sexual offenses that triggered the application of the statute's terms and conditions. Id. at 595. Once a person was convicted of any of these offenses, Megan's Law I directed courts to presume that the offender was an SVP. Id. at 596. A member of the "State Board to Assess Sexually Violent Predators" then was to conduct a pre-sentencing evaluation of the offender based upon a set of statutory criteria and render a written opinion as to whether the offender in fact met the definition of an SVP. Upon receipt and consideration of that report, the trial court was required to hold an evidentiary hearing. The offender bore the burden to rebut—by clear and convincing evidence—the presumption that he or she was an SVP. Following consideration of the expert report and all of the evidence admitted at the hearing, the trial court then was required to determine whether the SVP presumption had been rebutted. If not, then the offender was deemed an SVP, which was to be noted by the trial court on the judgment of sentence. Id . at 596-97.

Ultimately, we held that this statutory paradigm denied offenders the procedural due process protections guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. Id. at 608. To determine precisely what process was due to convicted offenders, we first had to ascertain whether Megan's Law I essentially was a criminal or civil statute. Central to this assessment was the enactment's provision that, once an offender was deemed an SVP, the statutory maximums for the crimes for which the SVP was convicted were extended to the offender's lifetime. Thus, the SVP determination in Megan's Law I constituted a "separate factual determination, the end result of which is the imposition of criminal punishment." Id. at 603. Accordingly, this Court found that Megan's Law I effectively was a sentencing statute, which entitled an offender to the "full panoply of the relevant protections which due process guarantees," id. , not the least of which were the presumption of innocence and the placement of the evidentiary burden upon the Commonwealth's shoulders. Because the statute failed to afford these constitutional minimums, we struck "all of the relevant provisions of [Megan's Law I] pertaining to sexually violent predators." Id. at 608.

The General Assembly responded to Williams I by passing Megan's Law II, which took effect in 2000. In Commonwealth v. Gomer Williams , 574 Pa. 487, 832 A.2d 962 (2003) (" Williams II "), we weighed the constitutionality of the registration, notification, and counseling obligations imposed upon SVPs by Megan's Law II. Megan's Law II remedied many of the constitutional deficiencies that Williams I had identified in Megan's Law I. Offenders no longer were presumed to be SVPs automatically upon conviction. The Commonwealth was assigned the burden to prove, by clear and convincing evidence, that the offender met the definition of an SVP. Williams II , 832 A.2d at 966. SVPs no longer were subjected to an automatic increase in their maximum sentences. Id. at 967. Nevertheless, SVPs were obligated to submit to, and participate in, a complex protocol requiring them to comply with registration, notification, and counseling requirements for the remainder of their lifetimes. Failure to comply resulted in additional criminal charges and penalties.

The specific constitutional question that we confronted in Williams II was whether these obligations imposed upon SVPs constituted criminal punishment so as to work an ex post facto violation. To evaluate these claims, we applied the two-part test that the Supreme Court of the United States outlined in Kennedy v. Mendoza-Martinez , 372 U.S. 144, 83 S.Ct. 554, 9 L.Ed.2d 644 (1963). Although we expressed a concern that Megan's Law II lacked a mechanism to afford judicial review of whether the SVP continued to pose a risk to society, we determined nonetheless that the Mendoza-Martinez test compelled the conclusion that the registration, notification, and counseling requirements imposed upon SVPs were not punitive. Id. at 986.

As I discuss in more detail below, the test requires first an inquiry into whether the legislature intended a statutory scheme to be punitive. If so, the inquiry ends. If not, the reviewing court must assess whether the statute nonetheless is punitive in its effect. This second inquiry requires consideration of the following seven factors:

[w]hether the sanction involves an affirmative disability or restraint, whether it has historically been regarded as a punishment, whether it comes into play only on a finding of scienter, whether its operation will promote the traditional aims of punishment—retribution and deterrence, whether the behavior to which it applies is already a crime, whether an alternative purpose to which it may rationally be connected is assignable for it, and whether it appears excessive in relation to the alternative purpose assigned[.]

Mendoza-Martinez , 372 U.S. at 168-69, 83 S.Ct. 554 (footnotes omitted).

See also Muniz , 164 A.3d at 1201-03 (detailing Williams II ’s ex post facto analysis). In Williams II , this Court also considered whether the penalty for failure to comply with the terms and conditions of Megan's Law II—a possible life sentence—constituted punishment. Williams II , 832 A.2d at 985. We held that statutory sanction to be "unconstitutionally punitive, but severable." Id. at 987.

In 2004, the General Assembly amended Megan's Law again, passing Megan's Law III. This enactment added several offenses to the list of triggering crimes and created a searchable computer database of convicted sexual offenders subject to Megan's Law registration. Megan's Law III also included provisions unrelated to sexual offender registration. In Commonwealth v. Neiman , 84 A.3d 603 (2013), we struck down Megan's Law III as unconstitutional, as it was passed in violation of our Constitution's single subject rule. See PA. CONST. art. III, § 3 ("No bill shall be passed containing more than one subject, which shall be clearly expressed in its title, except a general appropriation bill or a bill codifying or compiling the law or a part thereof.").

Before we invalidated Megan's Law III in Neiman , SORNA had taken effect. SORNA instituted a number of changes that fundamentally altered both the way that sexual offenders were categorized and the obligations attendant to each designation. In Muniz , we explored the General Assembly's stated intent in enacting SORNA, as well as the parameters of the new regulatory scheme, as follows:

The purposes of SORNA, as stated by the General Assembly, are as follows:

(1) To bring the Commonwealth into substantial compliance with the Adam Walsh Child Protection and Safety Act of 2006 ...

(2) To require individuals convicted or adjudicated delinquent of certain sexual offenses to register with the Pennsylvania State Police and to otherwise comply with this subchapter if those individuals reside within this Commonwealth, intend to reside within this Commonwealth, attend an educational institution inside this Commonwealth or are employed or conduct volunteer work within this Commonwealth.

(3) To require individuals convicted or adjudicated delinquent of certain sexual offenses who fail to maintain a residence and are therefore homeless but can still be found within the borders of this Commonwealth to register with the Pennsylvania State Police.

(4) To require individuals who are currently subject to the criminal justice system of this Commonwealth as inmates, supervised with respect to probation or parole or registrants under this subchapter to register with the Pennsylvania State Police and to otherwise comply with this subchapter. To the extent practicable and consistent with the requirements of the Adam Walsh Child Protection and Safety Act of 2006, this subchapter shall be construed to maintain existing procedures regarding registration of sexual offenders who are subject to the criminal justice system of this Commonwealth.

(5) To provide a mechanism for members of the general public to obtain information about certain sexual offenders from a public Internet website and to include on that Internet website a feature which will allow a member of the public to enter a zip code or geographic radius and determine whether a sexual offender resides within that zip code or radius.

(6) To provide a mechanism for law enforcement entities within this Commonwealth to obtain information about certain sexual offenders and to allow law enforcement entities outside this Commonwealth, including those within the Federal Government, to obtain current information about certain sexual offenders.

42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.10. Furthermore, the General Assembly expressed the legislative

findings and declaration of policy supporting SORNA as follows:

(a) Legislative findings. —The General Assembly finds as follows:

(1) In 1995 the General Assembly enacted the act of October 24, 1995 (1st Sp. Sess. P.L. 1079, No. 24), commonly referred to as Megan's Law. Through this enactment, the General Assembly intended to comply with legislation enacted by Congress requiring that states provide for the registration of sexual offenders. The Federal statute, the Jacob Wetterling Crimes Against Children and Sexually Violent Offender Registration Act (Public Law 103–322, 42 U.S.C. [§] 14071 et seq . ), has been superseded by the Adam Walsh Child Protection and Safety Act of 2006 (Public Law 190–248, 120 Stat. 587).

(2) This Commonwealth's laws regarding registration of sexual offenders need to be strengthened. The Adam Walsh Child Protection and Safety Act of 2006 provides a mechanism for the Commonwealth to increase its regulation of sexual offenders in a manner which is nonpunitive but offers an increased measure of protection to the citizens of this Commonwealth.

(3) If the public is provided adequate notice and information about sexual offenders, the community can develop constructive plans to prepare for the presence of sexual offenders in the community. This allows communities to meet with law enforcement to prepare and obtain information about the rights and responsibilities of the community and to provide education and counseling to residents, particularly children.

(4) Sexual offenders pose a high risk of committing additional sexual offenses and protection of the public from this type of offender is a paramount governmental interest.

(5) Sexual offenders have a reduced expectation of privacy because of the public's interest in public safety and in the effective operation of government.

(6) Release of information about sexual offenders to public agencies and the general public will further the governmental interests of public safety and public scrutiny of the criminal and mental health systems so long as the information released is rationally related to the furtherance of those goals.

(7) Knowledge of whether a person is a sexual offender could be a significant factor in protecting oneself and one's family members, or those in care of a group or community organization, from recidivist acts by such offenders.

(8) The technology afforded by the Internet and other modern electronic communication methods makes this information readily accessible to parents, minors, and private entities, enabling them to undertake appropriate remedial precautions to prevent or avoid placing potential victims at risk.

(b) Declaration of policy. — The General Assembly declares as follows:

(1) It is the intention of the General Assembly to substantially comply with the Adam Walsh Child Protection and Safety Act of 2006 and to further protect the safety and general welfare of the citizens of this Commonwealth by providing for increased regulation of sexual offenders, specifically as that regulation

relates to registration of sexual offenders and community notification about sexual offenders.

(2) It is the policy of the Commonwealth to require the exchange of relevant information about sexual offenders among public agencies and officials and to authorize the release of necessary and relevant information about sexual offenders to members of the general public as a means of assuring public protection and shall not be construed as punitive.

(3) It is the intention of the General Assembly to address the Pennsylvania Supreme Court's decision in Commonwealth v. Neiman , [624 Pa. 53, 84 A.3d 603] (Pa. 2013), by amending this subchapter in the act of March 14, 2014 (P.L. 41, No. 19).

42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.11(a) – (b).

SORNA's registration provisions are applicable to, inter alia , the following individuals: (1) those convicted of a sexually violent offense, on or after the effective date of SORNA, who are residents of Pennsylvania, employed in Pennsylvania, students in Pennsylvania or transients; (2) those who are inmates, on or after the effective date of SORNA, in state or county prisons as a result of a conviction for a sexually violent offense; (3) those who, on or after the effective date of SORNA, are inmates in a federal prison or are supervised by federal probation authorities as a result of a sexually violent offense and have a residence in Pennsylvania, are employed in Pennsylvania, are students in Pennsylvania or transients; and, pertinent to this appeal, (4) those who were required to register under previous versions of Megan's Law and had not yet fulfilled their registration period as of the effective date of SORNA. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.13.

SORNA classifies offenders and their offenses into three tiers. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.14. Those convicted of Tier I offenses are subject to registration for a period of fifteen years and are required to verify their registration information and be photographed, in person at an approved registration site, annually. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.15(a)(1), (e)(1). Those convicted of Tier II offenses are subject to registration for a period of twenty-five years and are required to verify their registration information and be photographed, in person at an approved registration site, semi-annually. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.15(a)(2), (e)(2).

Those convicted of Tier III offenses are subject to lifetime registration and are required to verify their registration information and be photographed, in person at an approved registration site, quarterly. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.15(a)(3), (e)(3). The Tier III offenses enumerated in SORNA ... are as follows:

(1) 18 Pa.C.S. § 2901(a.1) (relating to kidnapping).

(2) 18 Pa.C.S. § 3121 (relating to rape).

(3) 18 Pa.C.S. § 3122.1(b) (relating to statutory sexual assault).

(4) 18 Pa.C.S. § 3123 (relating to involuntary deviate sexual intercourse).

(5) 18 Pa.C.S. § 3124.1 (relating to sexual assault).

(6) 18 Pa.C.S. § 3124.2(a.1) [relating to institutional sexual assault].

(7) 18 Pa.C.S. § 3125 (relating to aggravated indecent assault).

(8) 18 Pa.C.S. § 3126(a)(7) (relating to indecent assault [of victim under 13 years of age] ).

(9) 18 Pa.C.S. § 4302(b) (relating to incest).

(10) 18 U.S.C. § 2241 (relating to aggravated sexual abuse).

(11) 18 U.S.C. § 2242 (relating to sexual abuse).

(12) 18 U.S.C. § 2244 ( [abusive sexual contact] where the victim is under 13 years of age).

(13) A comparable military offense or similar offense under the laws of another jurisdiction or foreign country or under a former law of this Commonwealth.

(14) An attempt, conspiracy or solicitation to commit an offense listed in paragraph (1), (2), (3), (4), (5), (6), (7), (8), (9), (10), (11), (12) or (13).

(15) (Reserved).

(16) Two or more convictions of offenses listed as Tier I or Tier II sexual offenses.

42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.14(d).

SORNA also establishes a statewide registry of sexual offenders to be created and maintained by the state police. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.16(a). The registry contains information provided by the sexual offender, including: names and aliases, designations used by the offender for purposes of routing or self-identification in internet communications, telephone numbers, social security number, addresses, temporary habitat if a transient, temporary lodging information, passport and documents establishing immigration status, employment information, occupational and professional licensing information, student enrollment information, motor vehicle information, and date of birth. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.16(b). The registry also contains information from the state police, including the following: physical description of the offender, including a general physical description, tattoos, scars and other identifying marks, text of the statute defining the offense for which the offender is registered, criminal history information, current photograph, fingerprints, palm prints and a DNA sample from the offender, and a photocopy of the offender's driver's license or identification card. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.16(c).

Not only does SORNA establish a registry of sexual offenders, but it also directs the state police to make information available to the public through the internet. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.28. The resulting website "[c]ontains a feature to permit a member of the public to obtain relevant information for an [offender] by a query of the internet website based on search criteria including searches for any given zip code or geographic radius set by the user." 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.28(a)(1)(i). The website also "[c]ontains a feature to allow a member of the public to receive electronic notification when [an offender] provides [updated] information [and also allows] a member of the public to receive electronic notification when [an offender] moves into or out of a geographic area chosen by the user." 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.28(a)(1)(ii). The Pennsylvania website must coordinate with the Dru Sjodin National Sex Offender Public Internet Website (https://www.nsopw.gov) and must be updated within three business days of receipt of required information. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.28(a)(1)(iii), (iv).

In addition to the offender's duty to appear at an approved registration site annually, semi-annually, or quarterly, depending upon the tier of their offense, all offenders are also required to appear in person at an approved registration site within three business days of any changes to their registration information including a change of name, residence, employment, student status, telephone number, ownership of a motor vehicle, temporary lodging, e-mail address, and

information related to professional licensing. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.15(g). Offenders must also appear in person at an approved registration site within twenty-one days in advance of traveling outside the United States and must provide dates of travel, destinations, and temporary lodging. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.15(i).

Furthermore, transients, i.e. homeless individuals, must appear in person monthly until a residence is established. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.15(h)(1). Offenders who fail to register, verify their information at the appropriate time, or provide accurate information are subject to prosecution and incarceration under 18 Pa.C.S. § 4915.1 (failure to comply with registration requirements). 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.21(a).

Muniz , 164 A.3d at 1204-08 (footnotes omitted).

In Muniz , issued almost five years after SORNA took effect, we considered a challenge to the constitutionality of its retroactive application to persons whose offenses occurred prior to December 20, 2012. Specifically, this Court "granted discretionary review to determine whether [SORNA], as applied retroactively ... is unconstitutional under the ex post facto clauses of the United States and Pennsylvania Constitutions." Id. at 1192. A plurality of this Court determined that such application was unconstitutional under both charters.

In Muniz , I issued a concurring opinion joining the plurality's determination that the retroactive application of SORNA violated the Pennsylvania Constitution. I did not join (because I would not have reached) the plurality's analysis of the issue under the United States Constitution or the plurality's conclusion that the Pennsylvania Constitution provides greater protections against ex post facto laws than does its federal counterpart. Muniz , 164 A.3d at 1233 (Wecht, J., concurring). Justice Todd joined my concurring opinion. Chief Justice Saylor authored a dissenting opinion, and Justice Mundy did not participate in the resolution of the case. Hence, a plurality decision resulted, there being no Majority with regard to the application of the Mendoza-Martinez criteria under federal law.

The Opinion Announcing the Judgment of the Court ("OAJC") in Muniz first examined the history of the constitutional proscription against ex post facto laws generally, which in part is premised upon the necessity of preventing governmental officials from passing "arbitrary or vindictive" legislation. Id. at 1195 (citation omitted). As well, the OAJC explained, prohibition of such laws is based not upon "an individual's right to less punishment, but the lack of fair notice and governmental restraint when the legislature increases punishment beyond what was prescribed when the crime was consummated." Id. (quoting Weaver v. Graham , 450 U.S. 24, 30, 101 S.Ct. 960, 67 L.Ed.2d 17 (1981) ). To constitute an ex post facto criminal statute, the law must "be retrospective, that is, it must apply to events occurring before its enactment, and it must disadvantage the offender affected by it," id. at 1196 (quoting Weaver , 450 U.S. at 29, 101 S.Ct. 960 ). Further, such a law must be one of the following four types of criminal statutes:

1st. Every law that makes an action done before the passing of the law, and which was innocent when done, criminal; and punishes such action. 2nd. Every law that aggravates a crime, or makes it greater than it was, when committed. 3rd. Every law that changes the punishment, and inflicts a greater punishment, than the law annexed to the crime, when committed. 4th. Every law that alters the legal rules of evidence, and receives less, or different, testimony, than the law required at the time of the commission of the offense, in order to convict the offender.

Id. at 1195 (quoting Calder v. Bull , 3 U.S. 386, 390, 3 Dall. 386, 1 L.Ed. 648 (1798) ). Contemplating these standards, the OAJC in Muniz explained that, if SORNA constituted punishment, then the third Calder category of criminal statutes would be implicated, potentially resulting in an unconstitutional ex post facto statute. Thus, the inquiry necessarily turned upon whether SORNA constituted punishment, and upon the application of the two-part analytical test provided in Mendoza-Martinez .

After detailing the most relevant case law testing the constitutionality of sexual offender registration statutes, see Muniz , 164 A.3d at 1196-1203 (discussing Smith v. Doe , 538 U.S. 84, 123 S.Ct. 1140, 155 L.Ed.2d 164 (2003), Williams I , and Williams II ), the OAJC considered the first aspect of the Mendoza-Martinez model, inquiring whether the General Assembly, by enacting SORNA, intended to punish sexual offenders. The OAJC examined the statutory text, and found that none of that language exhibited a punitive intent. Id. at 1209. Rather, the "expressed purpose, legislative findings, [and] declaration of policy" all demonstrated the General Assembly's desire to enact a civil, regulatory scheme. Id. The OAJC expressed concern about some aspects of SORNA that facially undermined the General Assembly's expressed non-punitive intent. See id. (finding troubling, inter alia , SORNA's: (1) inclusion within its net of a broad class of crimes some of which are minor and non-sexual in nature; (2) codification within the Crimes Code; and (3) vesting of regulatory authority with the Pennsylvania State Police). However, noting that the General Assembly is afforded considerable deference in this regard, and recognizing that SORNA in large part was enacted to comply with federal law, the OAJC concluded, as we did in Williams II , that the legislature's intent was "not to punish, but to promote public safety through a civil, regulatory scheme." Id. at 1210 (quoting Williams II , 832 A.2d at 972 ).

Having so determined, the OAJC turned its attention to the second aspect of the Mendoza-Martinez test, and evaluated the seven factors designed to aid a court in analyzing whether a "statutory scheme is nonetheless so punitive either in purpose or effect as to negate the legislature's non-punitive intent." Williams II , 832 A.2d at 971. The Muniz OAJC noted that only the "clearest proof" of the punitive effect of a law will overcome its non-punitive intent, and that we must examine the entirety of the statutory scheme in order to make this assessment. Muniz , 164 A.3d at 1208 (OAJC) (citations omitted).

The first Mendoza-Martinez factor contemplates whether the challenged statute imposes an affirmative disability or restraint upon a sexual offender. In Smith , the United States Supreme Court applied the Mendoza-Martinez factors to Alaska's sexual offender registration statute. Smith , 538 U.S. at 97, 123 S.Ct. 1140 (explaining that the factors, which migrated from the Court's double jeopardy jurisprudence into ex post facto cases, provide a "useful framework," and are "useful guideposts," but are "neither exhaustive nor dispositive" (citations omitted)). As to this factor, the Supreme Court found that Alaska's statute did not involve an affirmative disability or restraint upon an individual, at least in part, because the enactment did not require the offender to make updates to registration information in person. Id. at 101, 123 S.Ct. 1140. SORNA, on the other hand, required each offender subject to its terms to make multiple in-person visits to registration sites during each year in which the offender is subject to SORNA. The OAJC explained that a Tier III offender would be required to report in person a minimum of one-hundred times over a twenty-five year period. Indeed, a requirement for still more reporting was possible inasmuch as SORNA extended the offender's reporting obligation to the duration of his lifetime. A "transient" person would be required to appear in person at least three hundred times over a twenty-five year period. According to the OAJC, these in-person reporting obligations distinguished SORNA significantly from the scheme that the Supreme Court reviewed in Smith , and constituted "a direct restraint" upon sexual offenders. Muniz , 164 A.3d at 1211 (OAJC). This factor, the OAJC concluded, weighed in favor of finding SORNA to be punitive.

According to the version of SORNA at issue in Muniz , a "transient" is defined as a "sexual offender who does not have a residence but nevertheless resides in this Commonwealth in a temporary habitat or other temporary place of abode or dwelling, including, but not limited to, a homeless shelter or park." 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.12 (formerly 42 Pa.C.S. § 9792 (expired)).

The OAJC next considered the second Mendoza-Martinez factor, assessing whether the sanction historically has been regarded as punishment. As to this factor, the OAJC focused upon two principal considerations: (1) whether the scheme at issue mimicked historical forms of public shaming; and (2) whether the scheme significantly resembled probationary sentences. As to the former, the Smith Court rejected the notion that public dissemination of personal information about the convicted sexual offender online paralleled the face-to-face humiliation or community expulsion that historically had been regarded as public shaming. The information being circulated, although carrying the potential for embarrassment and ostracism, was accurate and already available in the public domain. Smith , 538 U.S. at 98-99, 123 S.Ct. 1140. That the information was made available online did not shake the Supreme Court's conclusion, because the information was posted for the protection of the public, was not placed online for the purpose of shaming the offender, and had to be sought out affirmatively by members of the public. Id. at 99. Smith , however, was decided in 2003; the OAJC explained that a different "technological environment" obtained at that time. Muniz , 164 A.3d at 1212 (OAJC). In this regard, the OAJC found "particular force" in a concurring opinion that Justice Donohue authored during her service as a Judge of the Superior Court. Muniz , 164 A.3d at 1212 (OAJC) (quoting Commonwealth v. Perez , 97 A.3d 747 (Pa. Super. 2014) (Donohue, J., concurring)). There, Judge, now-Justice, Donohue observed:

The environment has changed significantly with the advancements in technology since the Supreme Court's 2003 decision in Smith . As of the most recent report by the United States Census Bureau, approximately 75 percent of households in the United States have internet access. Yesterday's face-to-face shaming punishment can now be accomplished online, and an individual's presence in cyberspace is omnipresent. The public internet website utilized by the Pennsylvania State Police broadcasts worldwide, for an extended period of time, the personal identification information of individuals who have served their "sentences." This exposes registrants to ostracism and harassment without any mechanism to prove rehabilitation—even through the clearest proof. In my opinion, the extended registration period and the worldwide dissemination of registrants’ information authorized by SORNA now outweighs the public safety interest of the government so as to disallow a finding that it is merely regulatory.

Perez , 97 A.3d at 765-66 (Donohue, J., concurring). Regarding sexual offender regulatory schemes and probationary sentences, the Smith Court found "some force" to the argument that the two bear strong similarities, but it ultimately held that Alaska's statute did not amount to probation inasmuch as it lacked the mandatory conditions almost universally associated with probationary sentences. Smith , 538 U.S. at 101, 123 S.Ct. 1140. The Muniz OAJC held that SORNA is "materially different" from the Alaska statute in this regard. Muniz , 164 A.3d at 1212 (OAJC). The OAJC adopted (with minor adjustments to account for Muniz’ designation as a Tier III offender) then-Judge, now Justice, Donohue's Perez insight:

In contrast, the mandatory in-person verification requirement in Section 9799.15(e) not only creates an affirmative restraint upon [appellant], requiring him to appear at a designated facility a minimum of [100] times over the next 25 years[, extending for the remainder of his life,] as a Tier [III] offender, but also greatly resembles the periodic meetings with probation officers imposed on probationers. ... [B]ecause SORNA differs significantly from the statute at issue in Smith , these disparities must be considered.

In [ Williams II ,] the Pennsylvania Supreme Court found that probation has historically been considered a traditional form of punishment. Williams [II ], 832 A.2d at 977. Probation entails a set of mandatory conditions imposed on an individual who has either been released after serving a prison sentence, or has been sentenced to probation in lieu of prison time. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9754. These conditions can include psychiatric treatment, limitations on travel, and notifying a probation officer when any change of employment or residency occurs. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9754(c). Probationers are also subject to incarceration for a violation of any condition of their probation. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9771.

Like the conditions imposed on probationers, registrants under SORNA must notify the state police of a change in residence or employment. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.15(g). Offenders also face incarceration for any noncompliance with registration requirements. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.22(a). Furthermore, SORNA requires registrants who do not have a fixed place of work to provide "general travel routes and general areas where the individual works" in order to be in compliance. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.16. The Supreme Court in Smith stated that "[a] sex offender who fails to comply with the reporting requirement may be subjected to criminal prosecution for that failure, but any prosecution is a proceeding separate from the individual's offense." Smith , 538 U.S. at 101-02, 123 S.Ct. 1140. However, violations for noncompliance with both probation and SORNA registration requirements are procedurally parallel. Both require further factual findings to determine whether a violation has actually occurred. 42 Pa.C.S. §§ 9771(d), 9799.21. Similarly, but for the original underlying offense, neither would be subject to the mandatory conditions from which the potential violation stems. The parallels between the SORNA registration requirements and probation lead me to conclude that factor two of the [ Mendoza-Martinez ] test leans towards a finding that SORNA is punitive.

Perez , 97 A.3d at 763-64 (Donohue, J. concurring) (bracketed material supplied by Muniz , 164 A.3d at 1213 (OAJC) ; some citations modified).

While deeming this factor to present a much closer case than the statute at issue in Smith , the OAJC ultimately was persuaded by Justice Donohue's Perez perspective, and determined that SORNA's publication provisions were comparable to public shaming and that the statute's mandatory conditions were akin to probation. Thus, like the first factor, this factor weighed in favor of a finding that SORNA was punitive in effect.

The fourth Mendoza-Martinez factor inquires whether the challenged statute operates in a manner that promotes the traditional aims of punishment. The Muniz OAJC narrowed its analysis of this factor to scrutiny of two of those punitive goals: deterrence and retribution. Starting with the former, the OAJC acknowledged Smith ’s caveat that "the mere presence of a deterrent purpose" does not render such sanctions "criminal." Smith , 538 U.S. at 102, 123 S.Ct. 1140. SORNA, the OAJC concluded, carried much more than a "mere presence" of a deterrent effect; so much so, in fact, that the Commonwealth conceded such effect. Muniz , 164 A.3d at 1214-15 (OAJC). Unlike earlier versions of Megan's Law, many of the crimes that triggered application of SORNA were relatively minor, providing only for short prison sentences or even probation. Yet commission of those same less severe crimes—some that did not even contain a sexual element—resulted in at least fifteen years of registration. Id. at 1215 (highlighting, by way of example, the crime of interference with custody of children, 18 Pa.C.S. § 2904 ). As such, as to many of the offenses in question, "SORNA clearly aims at deterrence." Id.

Following the Smith Court's path through the Mendoza-Martinez factors, the OAJC found that factors three and five were of "little significance" to the inquiry and carried "little weight in the balance." Muniz , 164 A.3d at 1214, 1216.

Regarding retribution, neither the Supreme Court in Smith nor this Court in Williams II had found that sexual offender registration laws carry a retributive effect. Nonetheless, the Muniz OAJC noted the lack of extensive analysis on this point in either decision, and proceeded to determine that SORNA contained "much more" of a retributive effect than the statutes considered in those prior cases. Id. at 1216. SORNA authorized the release online of a significant amount of an offender's personal information, much more than the information that generally is available to the public following a criminal conviction. The online data included the offender's name, year of birth, residence address, school address, work address, photograph, physical description, vehicle license plate number and vehicle description. Id. at 1215-16. Compared to Megan's Law II as applied to SVPs and as contemplated in Williams II , "SORNA has increased the length of registration, contains mandatory in-person reporting requirements, and allows for more private information to be displayed online." Id. at 1216 (citation omitted). All told, the Muniz OAJC deemed inescapable the conclusion that SORNA served as a deterrent and was retributive in effect, both of which militated in favor of finding SORNA to be punitive overall.

The Muniz OAJC turned to the sixth factor: whether there exists an alternative purpose to which the statute rationally may be connected. Because it was undeniable that SORNA was enacted to protect the public from sexual offenders, and thus was rationally connected to public health and safety, the appellant in Muniz conceded that this factor weighed in favor of finding SORNA to be non-punitive. Id. at 1216. The OAJC agreed. However, in doing so, the OAJC took note of the debate over whether statutes such as SORNA generally are necessary to combat a higher rate of recidivism among sexual offenders, acknowledging that such a phenomenon is not held universally or uniformly to be correct. Id. at 1217. The OAJC pointed to studies that support the opposite conclusion. Nevertheless, such divergence did not alter the punitiveness calculus before the Court. Sifting through these complex societal issues falls within the General Assembly's bailiwick, and this Court defers to legislative choices in this regard, especially when no universal consensus exists. Thus, the OAJC concluded that SORNA could be rationally connected to a purpose other than the infliction of punishment, i.e. , protection of the public, and that this factor accordingly weighed against a finding of punitiveness.

Having discerned an alternative statutory purpose, the Muniz OAJC proceeded to the final Mendoza-Martinez factor, which required it to ascertain whether SORNA was nonetheless excessive in relation to the statute's non-criminal objective. The OAJC found two principles from our case law to be particularly relevant here. First, in Williams II , in assessing Megan's Law II, this Court observed that: "if the Act's impression is likely to result in individuals being deemed sexually violent predators who in fact do not pose the type of risk to the community that the General Assembly sought to guard against, then the Act's provisions could be demonstrated to be excessive." Williams II , 832 A.2d at 983. Second, in Lee , this Court explained that "society has a significant interest in assuring that the classification scheme [of a sex offender registration law] is not over-inclusive." Lee , 935 A.2d at 883 (internal quotation marks and associated citation omitted; bracketed material supplied by the OAJC in Muniz , 164 A.3d at 1218 ). Both of these explications highlight the harm resulting from overbroad sexual offender registration schemes, a concern that the OAJC already found to be present and troublesome in SORNA. The OAJC explained: "we have already recognized [that] SORNA categorizes a broad range of individuals as sex offenders subject to its provisions, including those convicted of offenses that do not specifically relate to a sexual act." Muniz , 164 A.3d at 1218 (OAJC) (citations omitted). Consequently, SORNA's terms and obligations were "excessive and over-inclusive in relation to the statute's alternative assigned purposes of protecting the public from sexual offenders." Id.

All that remained for purposes of federal ex post facto analysis was for the OAJC to balance the relevant factors. Of the five factors that were assigned weight, the OAJC found that four weighed in favor of finding the SORNA to be punitive in effect. Those four factors outweighed the lone non-punitive factor. Hence, the OAJC held, "the retroactive application of SORNA to [Muniz] violates the ex post facto clause of the United States Constitution." Id.

II. Subchapter I

As the Majority notes, the General Assembly enacted Subchapter I in the wake of both our decision in Muniz and the Superior Court's decision in Butler I . See Maj. Op. at ––––; 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.51(b)(4). Subchapter I applies to sexual offenders whose crimes were committed between April 22, 1996 and December 20, 2012. The General Assembly pronounced that the statute "shall not be considered punitive." Id. § 9799.51(b)(2).

The Majority helpfully lists those provisions of Subchapter I—including the substantive differences from prior versions of SORNA and Megan's Law—that are most relevant to the present inquiry. See Maj. Op. at –––– – ––––. That list is worth repeating here, as it informs my analysis of whether these changes suffice to overcome an ex post facto challenge:

• Subchapter I applies to those convicted of a sexually violent offense after April 22, 1996, but before December 20, 2012. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.52(1), (2).

• Generally, any person convicted of one of the triggering offenses must register either for a period of ten years or for life. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.55(a), (b). An offender designated to be an SVP must register for life. Id. § 9799.55(b)(3). As was the case in prior iterations of Megan's Law or SORNA, registration is mandatory and without exception, including in the event of a natural disaster. Id. § 9799.55(c).

• All offenders must submit to fingerprinting and photographing. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.54(b).

• An offender must notify the PSP within three days after the offender changes residences. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.56(a)(2).

• If the offender is homeless, he or she must, within three days of a change in registration information, provide the PSP with: (1) the location where he or she is sheltering temporarily; (2) a list of places where he or she eats, frequents, or engages in leisure activities; and (3) a list of any potential future destinations. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.57(2)(i)-(ii).

• Generally, failure to comply with the registration requirements results in a felony prosecution. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.60(e) ; 18 Pa.C.S. § 4915.2(b), (c).

• The subchapter also establishes a website to be operated in conjunction with the statewide registry. The website will publish the following information as to each offender: (1) name and known aliases; (2) year of birth; (3) the address, municipality, county, and zip code of any residence at which the offender lives; (4) the location of any schools attended by the offender; (5) the address of any employment location; (6) a photograph of the offender that must be updated at least once per year; (7) a physical description of the offender, including sex, height, weight, eye color, hair color, and race; (8) any identifying marks, including tattoos, scars, or birthmarks; (9) the license plate number and a description for any vehicle owned or registered to the offender; (10) a status report regarding whether the offender is compliant with the terms of SORNA; (11) an indication of whether the offender's victim was a minor; (12) a description of the offense committed by the offender; (13) the dates of the offense and conviction; and (14) the location of temporary shelter and where the offender receives mail, if the offender is homeless. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.63(c).

For SVPs and lifetime reporters, the information will remain online for the duration of the offender's lifetime, unless the SVP or lifetime reporter is removed from the registry pursuant to 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.59. For non-SVPs, the information is posted online for the entirety of the time that the offender is required to register. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.63(d)(1)-(3).

• If a member of the public so desires, the website will alert that person by electronic notification if an offender moves in or out of the geographic area designated by the person. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.63(b)(7).

• For in-person reporting for residence verification, a non-SVP must report in person once per year at an approved facility.

42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.60(b). The non-SVP offender must report annually on, or within ten days of, the anniversary of their initial registration. Id. An SVP must report in person four times per year. Id. § 9799.60(a).

• All offenders must contact the Pennsylvania State Police within three days of any change to their registration information, including changes to residence, employment, or education. However, Subchapter I contains no express requirement that the offender must appear in person to satisfy this obligation. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.56(a)(2).

• A homeless person living in a temporary habitation must report every thirty days. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.60(b.2).

• Finally, an SVP or lifetime reporter can petition a court to be removed from the statewide registry. At the time of the petition, the SVP must not have been convicted of any crime punishable by one year or longer after being released from prison or after registering for the first time, whichever is later, for a period of twenty-five years. Also, the offender must be reviewed by a member of the Sexual Offender Assessment Board. The SVP or lifetime reporter must demonstrate by clear and convincing evidence that he or she no longer poses a risk, or a threat of risk, to the public or any individual person. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.59(a).

• Persons convicted of the following crimes are subjected to a ten-year registration period: kidnapping, indecent assault, incest, prostitution, obscene and sexual materials, sexual abuse of children, unlawful contact with a minor, sexual exploitation of children, luring a child into a motor vehicle, and institutional sexual assault. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.55(a).

• Persons convicted of the following crimes, SVPs, and offenders convicted of two or more of the ten-year reporting crimes are subject to lifetime registration: rape, IDSI, sexual assault, aggravated indecent assault, and incest with a child under the age of 12. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.55(b).

• A number of crimes that were included in SORNA but are not necessarily sexually related were removed from the list of triggering offenses in Subchapter I, including, but not limited to, the following: unlawful restraint, false imprisonment, interference with custody of children, and invasion of privacy.

Maj. Op. at –––– – ––––.

III. Preliminary Procedural Issues

With this background in mind, there remains one procedural matter that must be considered before proceeding to the analytical task at hand. Lacombe and Witmayer differed in the manner in which they sought relief in the lower courts. Witmayer filed a timely PCRA petition, while Lacombe filed a petition to terminate his reporting and registration requirements. Neither the Commonwealth nor the Attorney General (the latter as an intervenor in this matter, see Pa.R.A.P. 521 ; 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.74 ) challenge the propriety of Witmayer's pursuit of relief under the terms and time constraints of the PCRA. Both governmental parties, however, challenge the procedural propriety of the path chosen by Lacombe. Stated simply, both the Commonwealth and the Attorney General assert that Lacombe was required to pursue relief under the PCRA, including first satisfying one of the PCRA's time-bar exceptions. See Brief for the Commonwealth at 56-64; Brief for Intervenor Office of Attorney General at 46-48; 42 Pa.C.S. § 9545(b). Because Lacombe did not establish one of those exceptions, the Commonwealth and Attorney General argue, the trial court lacked jurisdiction to afford relief to Lacombe.

Post Conviction Relief Act ("PCRA"), 42 Pa.C.S. §§ 9541 -46.

To date, as the Majority notes, see Maj. Op. at ––––, this Court has not prescribed an exclusive procedural mechanism to challenge the constitutionality of sexual offender regulatory statutes. The inherent difficulty in doing so arises from the fact that these statutes frequently are amended or overhauled, as I have shown above. There were multiple versions of Megan's Law, and Subchapter I is the second version of SORNA. Each version ushered in sweeping changes to the law, and each was applied retroactively. Offenders subject to one law commonly find themselves facing a new set of obligations for a much longer period of time than was originally imposed and to which they did not originally agree during plea negotiations. These circumstances present obvious procedural difficulties when an offender seeks to challenge increases in the severity of his or her conditions.

Because the Majority concludes that Subchapter I is not punitive, it declines to address this procedural quandary. See Maj. Op. at –––– n.16.

Over the years, we have entertained constitutional challenges arising in various postures. For instance, in Commonwealth v. Martinez , 637 Pa. 208, 147 A.3d 517 (2016), three defendants challenged the increase in the duration of their obligations, which differed significantly from the terms reached during their plea negotiations. Like Lacombe, the three defendants did not file PCRA petitions; indeed, had they done so, their petitions would have been facially untimely. Instead, each of the three defendants filed a "Petition to Enforce Plea Agreement or for a Writ of Habeas Corpus." Id. at 523-24. Ultimately, this Court ruled in their favor, requiring enforcement of the plea bargains. Their choice of procedural mechanism was not fatal to their claims for relief.

In Williams II , Gomer Williams pursued relief via the filing of a "Motion for Extraordinary Relief." Williams II , 832 A.2d at 965. Another appellant in Williams II , Bruce Peters, filed a "Motion for Relief." Id. In Muniz , Jose Muniz argued in a post-sentence motion that he should not be subjected to SORNA, but instead should be required to comply with Megan's Law III, which was the law in place at the time of his commission of the triggering offenses and which required only a ten-year period of registration. Muniz , 164 A.3d at 1193. Then, on direct appeal, Muniz asserted that the retroactive application of SORNA to him was an ex post facto violation. Id.

As noted, Witmayer chose to file a timely PCRA petition, which is not being contested on procedural grounds.

Nor are these the only options. Presumably, because the registry is maintained by the PSP, see 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.67, an offender contesting the constitutionality of his or her inclusion on that registry, and seeking removal therefrom, could seek a writ of mandamus in the Commonwealth Court. See id. § 761 (establishing the original jurisdiction of the Commonwealth Court over matters involving governmental entities). Thus, it cannot be said that the PCRA is the only viable mechanism.

Moreover, for many offenders, the PCRA may not be available. To be eligible for relief, a PCRA petitioner must not only file timely; he or she also must be serving a sentence. Id. § 9543(a)(1). Many offenders will not begin their Subchapter I obligations until the completion of their sentences, and, for many other offenders, the compliance period will far exceed the length of their actual sentences. For this significant number of offenders, the PCRA is not an available avenue for relief. Moreover, to suggest that offenders subject to registration requirements must pursue their claims under the PCRA implicitly would suggest that such offenders are serving criminal sentences—a position manifestly undercutting the governmental parties’ arguments that sexual offender registration requirements are non-punitive.

Our jurisprudence to date has not demanded any particular form of action, nor have we ever mandated compliance with the PCRA for such claims, as is evidenced by the different types of post-conviction claims that we have reviewed. The complexity and evolving nature of our sexual offender registry laws have made it difficult, and potentially inequitable, to prescribe any particular mechanism. For these reasons, I join the Majority's well-reasoned decision to decline the Commonwealth's and the Attorney General's invitation to bar Lacombe from pursuing relief on procedural grounds, and I join the Majority's concomitant finding of jurisdiction over the present cases. See Maj. Op. at ––––.

IV. Ex Post Facto Analysis

A. Legislative Intent

Ex post facto analysis entails a two-part inquiry. The court must determine first whether, in enacting the challenged statute, the legislature intended to impose a punishment. If so, then the statute is punitive, and unconstitutional if applied retroactively. However, if the legislature intended to enact a civil regulatory scheme, then the court proceeds to the second prong of the inquiry, evaluating whether the law is punitive in effect so as to defeat the legislature's non-punitive intent. See Smith , 538 U.S. at 92, 123 S.Ct. 1140.

As this is a question of law, our scope of review is plenary and our standard of review is de novo . Muniz , 164 A.3d at 1195 (OAJC) (citation omitted).

With regard to the first aspect of the inquiry, the only question is "whether the General Assembly's intent was to punish." Muniz , 164 A.3d at 1209 (OAJC) (quoting Williams II , 832 A.2d at 971 ). Here, the General Assembly did not intend to enact a punitive scheme. That body expressly so stated in Subchapter I, declaring that the subchapter "shall not be construed as punitive." 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.51(b)(2). The General Assembly also stated that the purpose of the enactment was to "[p]rotect the safety and general welfare of the people of this Commonwealth by providing for registration, community notification and access to information regarding sexually violent predators and offenders who are about to be released from custody and will live in or near their neighborhood." Id. § 9799.51(b)(1). It is clear, then, that the General Assembly sought to enact a civil regulatory scheme.

B. The Mendoza-Martinez Factors

Having determined that Lacombe and Witmayer procedurally are not barred from challenging the constitutionality of the retroactive application of Subchapter I, and having concluded that the General Assembly did not specifically intend for the subchapter to constitute a penal scheme, I turn to the application of the Mendoza-Martinez factors. Distilled to its essence, this task requires an examination of whether the alterations to SORNA that our General Assembly enacted in Subchapter I suffice to distance the present scheme from the unconstitutionally punitive version that we deemed to be an ex post facto law in Muniz .

i. Whether Subchapter I Imposes an Affirmative Disability or Restraint

In Muniz , the OAJC held that this first factor weighed in favor of finding SORNA to be punitive. As described above, in finding that SORNA created an affirmative disability or restraint, the OAJC relied upon both the fact that the offender had to appear in person and (in larger part) upon the number of times that the offender was required to do so over the course of the period during which the offender was required to cooperate with SORNA's terms and conditions. See Muniz , 164 A.3d at 1210-11 (OAJC). For example, the OAJC explained, under the contested version of SORNA, a Tier III offender such as Muniz (and Lacombe and Witmayer) was required to report in person four times per year. Extrapolated over a period of twenty-five years, the Muniz OAJC highlighted, the offender would be required to make no fewer than one hundred in-person reporting visits to the Pennsylvania State Police ("PSP"). That number, moreover, represented the bare minimum: offenders might opt to make "free" choices to change residence or appearance, thereby requiring additional in-person reports to the PSP. Id. at 1211. The OAJC distinguished this statutory obligation imposed on Tier III offenders from the statute that the Supreme Court found to be constitutional in Smith , which required no in-person visits, and from Megan's Law II, which contained in-person counseling requirements for SVPs that we upheld in Williams II based upon the particular interests attendant to the SVP designation. Id. at 1210-11.

I discern no convincing reason to deviate from Muniz on this factor. Subchapter I continues to impose in-person reporting requirements upon sexual offenders. As Tier III offenders, Lacombe and Witmayer personally must appear to be photographed and to complete registration paperwork once per year at an approved facility on or within ten days of the anniversaries of their initial registrations. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.60(b). Offenders also are required to alert the PSP within three days of any changes in registration-related circumstances (education, employment, residency, etc.). Id. § 9799.56(a)(2). Subchapter I does not state how an offender must complete this obligation. The statute does not expressly provide that this must be done in person, but it also does not prescribe any other mandatory method. Thus, there exists at least the possibility that the authorities will construe these requirements consistently with the older versions of the statutory scheme, which required offenders to appear in person in order to report any "free choices" to change their circumstances, see Muniz , 164 A.3d at 1211 (OAJC), thus increasing the required number of in-person appearances.

It is, of course, undeniable that Subchapter I decreases the number of required personal appearances that the Muniz OAJC found to be problematic. Over the same twenty-five-year period that the OAJC in Muniz used to highlight the extent of the burden on a sexual offender's life, that minimum number would drop from one hundred to twenty-five such appearances. Twenty-five is not an insignificant number of reporting visits, such that the in-person reporting requirements could be deemed categorically to impose no affirmative disability or restraint. Nor is the sheer number of appearances the only factor to be considered. As noted, in Muniz , the OAJC also found the mere obligation to appear in person to be a controlling feature for this Mendoza-Martinez factor, as exemplified by the OAJC's distinction of Smith upon the basis that SORNA had in-person requirements while the Alaska statute at issue in Smith did not. Muniz , 164 A.3d at 1210 (OAJC) (citing Smith , 538 U.S. at 102, 123 S.Ct. 1140 ) (finding the "distinction" with regard to the presence of in-person obligations to be "important").

The Majority agrees with the Commonwealth that Subchapter I does not impose an affirmative disability or restraint upon retroactive offenders at all. See Maj. Op. at ––––. The Majority reaches this conclusion almost exclusively because, with the enactment of Subchapter I, the number of in-person visits has decreased in significant measure. The Majority correctly notes that, over the course of a theoretical twenty-five year period, a sexual offender now must appear in person at least twenty-five times instead of at least one-hundred times. I disagree on the import and effect of this reduction.

The Majority views the reduction as a total removal of the disability and restraint imposed upon the offender. But a reduction is not the same as an elimination. The sheer number of times that a person must report in person cannot be the defining criterion for this factor. The disability or restraint is the obligation to remove oneself from one's daily life and to report to the governmental authority. A law that requires a person to take such action necessarily imposes a disability or restraint upon the person. The existence of the obligation to report in person, regardless of the number of reporting visits required, makes it inevitable that the first Mendoza-Martinez factor has been satisfied, and weighs in favor of finding the overall statute to be punitive. The Majority's contrary focus upon the infrequency of in-person visits more appropriately should impact the weight to be assigned to this factor in the final balancing of the factors. It cannot, and should not, affect the prior assessment of whether the statute imposes a disability or restraint, vel non , upon the offender. Clearly, such imposition is manifest.

The Majority takes issue with my position that the necessity and frequency of in-person reporting should affect only the weight assigned to the factor, and should not impact upon the question of whether the factor is established in the first instance. See Maj. Op. at ––––. I stress that the Mendoza-Martinez factor at issue asks only whether the statutory scheme being considered "involves an affirmative disability or restraint." Mendoza-Martinez , 372 U.S. at 168-69, 83 S.Ct. 554. The factor does not inquire whether there should be a disability or restraint, whether such restrictions are "necessary to maintain a current registry," see Maj. Op. at –––– n.12, or even whether such impositions are a good idea. The question simply is whether the scheme in operation "involves" a disability or restraint. To require a person to appear, in-person, at an authorized law enforcement facility is to impose a disability or restraint. That the requirement is wise or necessary is a matter more relevant to the weight the factor carries, not whether the factor is implicated in the first instance.

Moreover, the Majority's focus upon the frequency of the in-person appearances would require a complicated and elusive line-drawing exercise for future enactments. The Majority offers no guidance as to where (if at all) that line ultimately must be drawn. If one yearly in-person appearance is not a disability, but, per Muniz , four times every year is, what about two? What about three? This framework unnecessarily and arbitrarily puts too much emphasis on frequency, whereas the simple legislative command to appear and report in person to the PSP suffices to establish a disability or restraint.

The Majority avoids responding to this point, declaring simply that these matters are not presently before the Court. See Maj. Op. at –––– n.12. In this regard, the Majority's opinion raises more questions than it answers. The Majority's focus upon the frequency of (and need for) in-person reporting needlessly consigns the law to a state of flux. Suppose that lawmakers choose to increase the number of in-person appearances above what is required by Subchapter I, but below what we found problematic in Muniz . The lawmakers, and the public for that matter, are entitled to know the effect of our decisions. Although these questions are fairly derivative of the Majority's own analysis, it nonetheless declines to answer them. These questions would not arise if the Court would hold, as I would, that any compulsory and sanction-backed in-person appearance to the PSP constitutes an affirmative disability or restraint, and that the frequency and necessity of such appearances are matters for the weighing aspect of the analysis, rather than for its applicability vel non .

The Majority's declaration that the in-person reporting obligations are "minimal and clearly necessary" misses the point. Neither the reason for the requirement nor the level of intrusion is relevant to the question of whether the statute imposes an affirmative duty or restraint. The question is "does it restrain or disable the person," not "is it a good idea to restrain or disable the person," or "how much of a restraint or disability does the statute impose?" The latter questions fairly may impact the weight that should be assigned to the factor, but they have little, if any, relevance as to whether the factor is met in the first instance.

Although the affirmative disability or restraint upon offenders under Subchapter I undoubtedly is less onerous than under the previous version of SORNA, it nonetheless remains an affirmative disability or restraint. Accordingly, I find that this factor weighs in favor of finding Subchapter I to be punitive in effect.

ii. Whether the Operation of Subchapter I is Consistent With What Has Historically Been Regarded as Punishment

Quoting extensively from Muniz , the Majority finds that this factor weighs in favor of finding Subchapter I to be punitive. See Maj. Op. at –––– – –––– (quoting Muniz , 164 A.3d at 1212-13 (OAJC) ). I agree with the Majority's assessment. I add the following thoughts.

Historically, contemplation of this factor has revolved around whether the operation of the statute at issue amounts to something akin to colonial shaming punishments or resembles criminal probation. I consider each in turn.

In Smith , the United States Supreme Court held that Alaska's statutory requirement that certain identifying and personal information about the sexual offender be disseminated to the public on the internet could not considered to be the equivalent of the face-to-face shaming employed in colonial America to punish similar offenders. Smith , 538 U.S. at 98-99, 123 S.Ct. 1140. The online information, the Supreme Court held, was accurate, was already available to the public, and was accessed online only when a member of the public affirmatively sought it out. Id. at 99, 123 S.Ct. 1140. In Muniz , the OAJC distinguished the Supreme Court's analysis, relying almost entirely upon Justice Donohue's concurrence in Perez . There, she explained (and the OAJC agreed) that the influence of technology on modern society had expanded significantly since Smith was decided, to the point that three-fourths of Americans had internet access in the home and the internet's involvement in one's life is "omnipresent." Muniz , 164 A.3d at 1212 (OAJC) (citing Perez , 97 A.3d at 765-66 (Donohue, J., concurring)). The avenues available for harassment and ostracism of sexual offenders that most commonly are associated with public shaming are ever-present and immediately available in a substantial majority of American homes.

Online access and usage has only increased in the three years since Muniz . The face-to-face shaming that Justice Donohue explained could be accomplished online in over three-fourths of American homes when she concurred in Perez six years ago now can be accomplished on the "smart" devices carried by nearly every American. See Riley v. California , 573 U.S. 373, 385, 134 S.Ct. 2473, 189 L.Ed.2d 430 (2014) ("A smart phone of the sort taken from Riley was unheard of ten years ago; a significant majority of American adults now own such phones."); id. at 395, 134 S.Ct. 2473 ("According to one poll, nearly three-quarters of smart phone users report being within five feet of their phones most of the time, with 12% admitting that they even use their phones in the shower."). With a few quick clicks, nearly anyone can access the sexual offender website and obtain no fewer than fourteen different pieces of personal or identifying information on any offender. See 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.63(c).

This is not at all to suggest that access to the information is an unimportant item in the General Assembly's toolbox as it seeks to protect the public from the harms that the legislature determined are associated with sexual offenders. Id. § 9799.63(a). However, the prevalence of the internet, the ease of access, and the amount of information posted on the website "now outweigh[ ] the public safety interest of the government so as to disallow a finding that [it] is merely regulatory." Perez , 97 A.3d at 766 (Donohue, J., concurring). This conclusion further is supported by the fact that Subchapter I directs the PSP to develop, implement, and maintain a mechanism on the website that provides automatic updates to any member of the public when an offender moves into or out of a locale. 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.63(b)(7). Unlike the circumstance emphasized in Smith , members of the public need not affirmatively seek out this personal information; it can be sent to them automatically.

Regarding the similarity between SORNA and probation, the Muniz OAJC again adopted Justice Donohue's concurrence in Perez . Therein, Justice Donohue compared the in-person reporting requirements imposed upon sexual offenders with meetings held between probationers and their probation officers. She further outlined the parallels between the conditions attendant to probation and those imposed upon sexual offenders under SORNA, noting that both require notification of authorities as to changes in residency or employment, both impose limitations upon movement or travel, and both result in further punishment upon non-compliance. Perez , 97 A.3d at 763-64 (Donohue, J., concurring). These striking similarities led the Muniz OAJC to conclude that SORNA's mandatory conditions are "more akin to probation." Muniz , 164 A.3d at 1213 (OAJC).

The enactment of Subchapter I has changed nothing that compels me to reach an opposite conclusion now. Subchapter I still requires in-person meetings, still imposes limits analogous to those levied upon probationers, and still imposes additional punishment in the event of non-compliance. As to the non-compliance, it bears emphasizing here that, with regard to assessing whether the statutory scheme resembles traditional punishment, Subchapter I could result in a penalty much more severe than that attendant to a violation of probation.

By way of example, consider a person convicted of indecent assault, 18 Pa.C.S. § 3126, graded in this instance as a first-degree misdemeanor. Id. § 3126(b)(2). The maximum penalty for an offense so graded is five years in prison. Id. § 106(b)(6). If that person is placed on probation for that crime, and then violates the probation, he or she will be subject to revocation of probation and will be resentenced, potentially to a new term of probation or perhaps to a term of incarceration. Regardless of how many times the person violates probation or is resentenced, he or she can never be sentenced to a sum total of more than five years for that particular offense. See 42 Pa.C.S. § 9754(a) (a term of probation "may not exceed the maximum term for which the defendant could be confined").

Concomitant with probation, that same person must comply with the terms and obligations imposed upon him or her by Subchapter I. Id. § 9799.54(a)(3). Notably, if that person fails to comply with the registration and verification requirements of the subchapter, the punishment is an entirely new offense, graded as at least a third-degree felony, which, in my hypothetical, is a more severe crime than that which landed the offender within the ambit of Subchapter I in the first place. Id. § 9799.60(e) ; 18 Pa.C.S. § 4915.2. Consequently, for the person convicted of first-degree misdemeanor indecent assault, he or she later could face an entirely separate seven-year prison term, over and above any punishment imposed for a violation of probation. See 18 Pa.C.S. § 106(b)(4). Because the ultimate objective presently is to ascertain whether Subchapter I is punitive, the fact that the requirements of Subchapter I not only closely resemble probation but actually expose the offender to additional, and in many instances more severe, criminal punishment weighs heavily in favor of a finding of punitiveness. Thus, like the Majority, I conclude that Subchapter I is "comparable to shaming punishments" and "is more akin to probation," Muniz , 164 A.3d at 1213 (OAJC), militating in favor of a conclusion that Subchapter I is punitive in effect.

iii. Whether the Statute Comes Into Play Only on a Finding of Scienter

As was the case in Muniz , and as explained aptly therein, "this factor is of little significance in our inquiry." Id. at 1214. Simply put, because it is clear that sexual offender statutes are aimed at protecting the public from recidivism, "past criminal conduct is ‘a necessary beginning point.’ " Id. (quoting Smith , 538 U.S. at 105, 123 S.Ct. 1140 ).

iv. Whether Subchapter I's Operation Will Promote the Traditional Aims of Punishment—Deterrence and Retribution

The Majority concludes that, although this factor weighs in favor of finding Subchapter I to be punitive, it nonetheless warrants less weight in the overall balance than it was given in Muniz , because (the Majority finds) the statute is aimed only at retribution but not at deterrence. See Maj. Op. at –––– – ––––. I disagree inasmuch as I find ample evidence that Subchapter I seeks to advance both of these traditional aims of punishment.

The Majority rests the entirety of its analysis rejecting the presence of a deterrent effect upon the premise that, because Subchapter I applies retroactively, an offender cannot be deterred from engaging in an act that he or she already has committed. Id. at ––––. The Majority cites nothing for this limited view of deterrence. Perhaps this is because there is nothing in Subchapter I that indicates that the General Assembly did not want to prevent sexual offenders from committing additional crimes in the future upon release from prison. Nor does the Majority account for the General Assembly's obvious desire to deter offenders from flouting the terms and obligations imposed upon them, a failure which would constitute a new criminal offense, a patent indicator of deterrent effect. Finally, the Majority's disregard of the deterrent effect is inconsistent with the framework that the OAJC outlined in Muniz . There, the OAJC agreed with the parties that "the prospect of being labeled a sex offender accompanied by registration requirements and the public dissemination of an offender's personal information over the internet has a deterrent effect." Muniz , 164 A.3d at 1215 (OAJC). However, the OAJC also recognized that the mere presence of a deterrent effect is not enough to render the entire statutory scheme punitive. In SORNA, conversely, the OAJC found more than a mere presence of such effect, in large part because many of the crimes that prompted the registration requirements were minor and did not command a lengthy prison sentence. For many of those offenses, SORNA's requirements far exceeded the amount of time the offender would be serving an actual sentence for the crime. This convinced the Muniz OAJC that "SORNA clearly aims at deterrence." Id.

The Majority asserts that my reliance here upon this statement from Muniz undermines my position that the Majority takes an unduly limited view of deterrence. I disagree. We should take a robust view of the deterrent effect that Subchapter I has on offenders and potential offenders alike. The statute deters people from committing triggering offenses, from violating the terms and conditions of the obligations imposed after the initial conviction, from committing offenses or behaviors that would disqualify them from the benefit of the removal mechanism, and perhaps more. Muniz concerned only the prospect of becoming a registered sexual offender. This indeed is one aspect of deterrence. But there is more to be considered. The Majority takes too narrow a view of the issue at hand.

Although much has changed with the enactment of Subchapter I, the result of the analysis is the same. One of the most obvious differences between Subchapter I and SORNA is the number of crimes to which the statute applies. Subchapter I removed the minor, non-sexual related crimes that the OAJC found problematic in its Mendoza-Martinez analysis. See id. at 1218. Nonetheless, utilizing the same framework as the OAJC in Muniz , the same imbalance appears with respect to a number of the crimes that require compliance under Subchapter I. For instance, pursuant to 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.55(a), persons convicted of indecent assault graded as a first-degree misdemeanor ( 18 Pa.C.S. § 3126 ), promoting prostitution of a child (id. § 5902(b), (b.1)), obscene and other sexual materials or performances involving a child (id. § 5903(a)(3)-(6)), or sexual abuse of children (id. § 6312) must register for a period of ten years. However, indecent assault when graded as a first-degree misdemeanor, carries a maximum penalty of five years, id. § 106(b)(6), and the other listed crimes (at least for first offenses) are third-degree felonies, which carry a maximum penalty of seven years. See id. § 106(b)(4). As was the case in Muniz , a conviction for any one of these offenses, even the third-degree felonies, does not guarantee a statutory maximum prison sentence, or even any period of incarceration at all. And even if the convicted offender was imprisoned for the maximum term for these offenses, the period of registration required of that offender upon release still would exceed the length of the prison term by at least three years. Inasmuch as the driving force behind the Muniz OAJC's contemplation of this factor was the potential disparity between the length of the imposed sentence and the length of registration, the same concern exists with Subchapter I with respect to a number of offenses. The continuing disparity militates once more in favor of finding that the statutory scheme is aimed at deterrence. But there is more.

This differs significantly from this Court's analysis in Williams II . In that case, the focus exclusively was upon Megan's Law II's SVP provisions. Thus, for purposes of deterrence and retribution, our analysis hinged upon the fact that the incarceration which likely would result from a conviction of a crime that would lead to an SVP designation would be "substantial." Williams II , 832 A.2d at 978. In light of the severity of the likely punishment, we held, "it is unlikely that the prospect of subsequent registration, notification, and counseling will have any marginal deterrent effect upon [an SVP.]" Id. Here, as was the case in Muniz , the SVP provisions are not our focus, and I instead consider the statutory scheme as a whole, including those provisions that create the imbalance that prompted the Muniz OAJC to find a clear deterrent effect.

As I noted earlier, Subchapter I imposes significant penalties for failure to comply with its requirements. An offender who fails to comply with the registration requirements can be charged, convicted, and sentenced for at least a third-degree felony, which for many is an offense graded higher than, or equal to, the original offense that subjected him or her to registration. See 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.60(e) ; 18 Pa.C.S. § 4915.2. Even for those convicted of more serious offenses, the prospect of another criminal offense and a certain return to prison serves a significant deterrent purpose.

Perhaps the most significant change ushered in by Subchapter I is the addition of a mechanism by which an offender can petition the court to be removed from the sexual offender registry and from its reporting requirements. See 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.59. In order to petition for removal, the offender must, for a period of twenty-five years since the offender's release from prison or from his or her last criminal conviction, not have been convicted of any offense punishable by one year or more. Id. § 9799.59(a)(1). Undeniably, whether intended or not, this provision creates a great incentive for the offender to avoid lapsing back into criminal activity. For individuals like Lacombe and Witmayer, who are subjected to lifetime registration because of their IDSI convictions, the opportunity to decrease their registration period is a strong incentive to remain crime-free. This serves the General Assembly's intent to discourage recidivism. For precisely that reason, the prospect of losing one's opportunity to discontinue registration requirements serves as a considerable deterrent to the commission of additional crimes—a traditional aim of criminal punishment.

The Majority declines to consider the impact that the removal mechanism has on the deterrent nature of Subchapter I, because "this provision clearly does not deter the initial criminal activity." See Maj. Op. at ––––. I find no compelling basis to limit a review of this factor to considerations that deter the crimes that subject an offender to Subchapter I in the first instance. I have found no statutory support for such a constraint, and the Majority cites none. To the contrary, this Court has explained, most recently in Muniz , see 164 A.3d at 1218 (OAJC), that, when contemplating the Mendoza-Martinez factors, a court must evaluate the entire statutory scheme, which necessarily includes provisions directed at deterring future misbehavior. Second, even if the inquiry were so narrow, the removal mechanism, and its high standards, unequivocally are relevant to a deterrence analysis. If the question is whether the terms and conditions of a sexual registration statute are so onerous and oppressive as to deter individuals from committing crimes, then surely it also matters that the mechanism by which one could obtain release from those statutory obligations requires a very formidable level of proof. It is all part of the same package, and it must be considered as such.

Taken together, the potential imbalance between criminal punishment and the registration period, the severity of punishment for failure to comply, and the loss of an opportunity to be removed from the registry all signify that Subchapter I "clearly aims at deterrence." Id. at 1215.

As to retribution, the Muniz OAJC found that SORNA, via its predication upon a criminal offense, mandatory in-person reporting requirements, lengthy registration terms, and extensive personal and identifying information posted on the internet for public consumption, was much more retributive than either the Alaska statute at issue in Smith or Megan's Law II at issue in Williams II . Although it contains minor differences, Subchapter I continues to be predicated upon a criminal conviction, requires in-person reporting visits to the PSP, and mandates periods of registration of at least ten years and as long as an offender's lifetime. I see no reason now to deviate from the Muniz OAJC's determination in this regard, and neither does the Majority. See Maj. Op. at ––––. Thus, Subchapter I also is retributive in nature. For these reasons, I would hold that the statutory scheme serves both traditional aims of punishment, resulting in this factor also weighing strongly in favor of an overall finding that the statutory scheme is punitive.

v. Whether the Behavior to Which Subchapter I Applies Already is a Crime

As with the third factor, and consistent with Muniz , this factor "carries little weight in the balance." Muniz , 164 A.3d at 1216 (OAJC).

vi. Whether an Alternative Purpose to Which Subchapter I May Rationally Be Connected is Assignable for It.

This factor requires little analysis. In enacting Subchapter I, the General Assembly declared that the purpose of the subchapter is to "[p]rotect the safety and general welfare of the people of this Commonwealth by providing for registration, community notification and access to information regarding sexually violent predators and offenders who are about to be released from custody and will live in or near their neighborhood." 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.51(b)(1). This purpose derives from the General Assembly's policy-based judgments. In this regard, the General Assembly has determined that the provisions of the statute are necessary to provide the community with "adequate notice and information about sexually violent predators and offenders ... [so as to] develop constructive plans to prepare itself for the release of sexually violent predators and offenders." Id. § 9799.51(a)(1). Further, the legislative body concluded that "sexually violent predators and offenders pose a high risk of engaging in further offenses even after being released from incarceration or commitments, and protection of the public from this type of offender is a paramount governmental interest." Id. § 9799.51(a)(2).

Thus, like its predecessor, Subchapter I serves a purpose other than punishment to which the statute reasonably can be connected: to protect and inform the public regarding dangers ascertained by the General Assembly. This factor clearly weighs in favor of finding the statute to be non-punitive. vii. Whether Subchapter I Appears Excessive in Relation to the Alternative Purpose Assigned

When finding that SORNA was excessive in relation to its non-punitive purpose, the Muniz OAJC found relevant this Court's admonitions in Williams II and Lee . In Williams II , we cautioned that, "if the Act's imprecision is likely to result in individuals being deemed sexually violent predators who in fact do not pose the type of risk to the community that the General Assembly sought to guard against, then the Act's provisions could be demonstrated to be excessive." Muniz , 164 A.3d at 1218 (OAJC) (quoting Williams II , 832 A.2d at 983 ). In Lee , we emphasized that "society has a significant interest in assuring that the classification scheme [of a sex offender registration law] is not over-inclusive." Id. (quoting Lee , 935 A.2d at 883 ) (brackets in original). Because of SORNA's inclusion of a wide array of offenses, some of which did not require the commission of sexual acts, the Muniz OAJC found that the concerns of both Williams II and Lee had come to fruition, rendering SORNA's regulatory scheme excessive in relation to its goals. Id .

With Subchapter I, the General Assembly removed most, if not all, of the non-sexual offenses that drove the Muniz OAJC's excessiveness determination. This mitigates the over-inclusiveness difficulty to a considerable extent. Although this undoubtedly is now a much closer case, the General Assembly's revisions do not necessarily mean that Subchapter I is not excessive in relation to its goals.

Subchapter I still governs an array of offenses, ranging from misdemeanors to first-degree felonies. Once an offender is subject to the subchapter's governance, the obligations and impact upon him or her are onerous and undeniable. For a non-SVP offender like Lacombe and Witmayer, an annual in-person report to the PSP is required for completion of registration paperwork and for photography. The offender promptly must report changes to the same authorities, and extensive information is posted online concerning the offender's likeness, vehicle, residence, etc. The threat of a separate felony prosecution (accompanied by likely imprisonment) for failure to comply looms over the offender for the duration of his or her registration period, and possibly for a lifetime. The duration of the obligations ranges from ten years to a lifetime, and, as I explained above, can exceed the punishments meted out for the actual crime that the offender committed. All told, Subchapter I creates a formidable web of restraints and obligations, erects hurdles in an offender's path to seeking and holding gainful employment, and exposes the offender to harassment and ostracism.

I do not for a moment disregard or demean the General Assembly's non-punitive goals. Nonetheless, this close call must fall in favor of finding the statutory scheme to be excessive. The entirety of the subchapter's obligations functionally dominate the offender's existence, and surpass that which is necessary to achieve the non-punitive legislative aims.

To be sure, much of Subchapter I resembles closely the statutory scheme that we found to be constitutional in Williams II . However, it is essential to recall that, in that case, this Court evaluated Megan's Law II as it applied to SVPs only. Regulation of SVPs begins with an individualized assessment of the offender and a specific legal determination that he or she suffers from a diagnosable mental abnormality that likely will cause the offender to commit additional predatory and violent sexual crimes in the future. See 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.53. That initial determination fundamentally alters the offender's obligations, including the addition of in-person counseling requirements. Perhaps more relevant here, the individualized determination influences how courts analyze the Mendoza-Martinez factors, including the excessiveness consideration, and impacts consideration of the necessity of the imposition of the terms and conditions of sexual offender regulatory schemes. Accordingly, we consistently have upheld such schemes when imposed upon SVPs. Here, the focus is not merely upon SVPs, but rather upon "[Subchapter I's] entire statutory scheme." Muniz , 164 A.3d at 1218 (OAJC). In this context, I am compelled find Subchapter I to be excessive, even if not overwhelmingly so.

See Williams II , 832 A.2d at 984 (holding that Megan's Law II as applied to SVPs is not excessive, at least not by the "clearest proof"); Butler II , 226 A.3d at 993 ; cf. In re H.R. , ––– Pa. ––––, 227 A.3d 316 (2020).

There is another aspect of Subchapter I that impacts this assessment: the removal mechanism. In Williams II , this Court expressed the belief that a "reasonable argument could be made that, to avoid excessiveness, the Legislature was required to provide some means for a sexually violent predator to invoke judicial review in an effort to demonstrate that he no longer poses a substantial risk to the community." Williams II , 832 A.2d at 982-83. In Subchapter I, the General Assembly provided such a mechanism, but did not limit it only to SVPs. Thus, I consider how that mechanism impacts the excessiveness analysis.

Pursuant to 42 Pa.C.S. § 9799.59(a), an offender may petition a court to be exempted from the "requirement to register, the requirement to verify residence, employment and enrollment in an educational institution, the requirement to appear on the publicly accessible Internet website ... and all other requirements." Id. The requirements are not easily met. For twenty-five years since his or her release from prison or since his or her last criminal conviction, the offender must demonstrate that he or she has not been convicted of any crime punishable by more than one year in prison. Id. § 9799.59(a)(1). The offender must be evaluated by the State Sexual Offenders Assessment Board, which must opine in writing as to whether it believes that the offender is likely to pose a threat to society if released from the requirements. Id. § 9799.59(a)(2)-(3). Thereafter, the trial court must hold a full hearing, affording counsel to the offender and the right to cross-examine any witnesses. Id. § 9799.59(a)(4). The reviewing court is vested with discretion to determine "only upon a finding of clear and convincing evidence" that the offender "is not likely to pose a threat to the safety of any other person." Id. § 9799.59(a)(5). If the petition is unsuccessful, the offender may reapply after five years have elapsed. Id. § 9799.59(a)(8).

This mechanism is a meaningful device for courts and offenders, but it does not sway my ultimate conclusion that Subchapter I is excessive. First, to reiterate, the focus of the instant analysis is not limited to this particular facet of the statute, but extends to the "entire statutory scheme." Muniz , 164 A.3d at 1218 (OAJC). It is obvious that the mechanism is not available to all of those subject to Subchapter I. Because the removal provision can operate only after twenty-five years, ten-year reporters continue to have no means to prove to a court that they no longer require the supervision mandated by Subchapter I. For such offenders, the mechanism's existence contributes nothing to the question of Subchapter I's excessiveness. Second, the mechanism provides only an opportunity to seek relief; such relief is far from a guarantee. The petitioner must make a compelling showing—indeed, by clear and convincing evidence—that, after a lengthy period of time, he or she is not likely to pose a threat to anyone. In this regard, the trial court still retains discretion to deny the petition. Additionally, the requirement is not limited to the threat that the offender will commit additional sexual offenses, nor is the potential threat limited to his or her original victim or to a similar person or age group. The court can exercise its discretion to deny the petition if it concludes that the offender may pose any threat to any person, in any circumstances, even if entirely unrelated to the goals articulated by the General Assembly in enacting this statutory scheme. I do not find the mechanism to be "illusory," as the trial court did in these cases, but I nonetheless am unable to ignore the high bar that it sets. The standard of proof, the court's discretion, and the broad showing of non-dangerousness required of the offender—the proof of a negative—make achieving relief exceedingly difficult, such that the mere potential for such relief does not mitigate the other aspects of Subchapter I that are excessive.

This factor weighs in favor of a finding that Subchapter I is punitive.

vii. Balancing of the Factors; Conclusion

Balancing the five applicable Mendoza-Martinez factors is not a linear or formulaic exercise. The analysis requires more than a mere mathematical comparison of how many factors fall on each side of the equation. The factors never were intended to constitute a rigid rubric meant to be mechanically applied exclusively to ex post facto claims. The factors actually "migrated into [the Supreme Court's] ex post facto case law" from its double jeopardy jurisprudence. Smith , 538 U.S. at 97, 123 S.Ct. 1140. Regardless of origin, the factors are meant "to apply in various constitutional contexts." Id. For this reason, any assessment of the factors must be flexible in order to account for the particular constitutional challenge asserted. The factors shall be considered "neither exhaustive nor dispositive." United States v. Ward , 448 U.S. 242, 249, 100 S.Ct. 2636, 65 L.Ed.2d 742 (1980). Each factor is only a "useful guidepost" in the exercise. Smith , 538 U.S. at 97, 123 S.Ct. 1140 (quoting Hudson v. United States , 522 U.S. 93, 99, 118 S.Ct. 488, 139 L.Ed.2d 450 (1997) ).

Because the General Assembly intended Subchapter I to be a civil scheme, " ‘only the clearest proof’ will suffice to override legislative intent and transform what has been denominated a civil remedy into a criminal penalty." Hudson , 522 U.S. at 100, 118 S.Ct. 488 (quoting Ward , 448 U.S. at 249, 100 S.Ct. 2636 ). I would find that standard has been met.

There are significant differences between my analysis and that of the Majority. For instance, I would find that the first and seventh factor weigh in favor of finding the statute to be punitive, and I would include retribution as a relevant consideration with respect to the second factor. When I weigh the factors, it becomes apparent that the General Assembly has not created a scheme that, in its effects, is non-punitive. Like the OAJC in Muniz , I would find that Subchapter I: (1) imposes affirmative disabilities or restraints upon the subject offenders; (2) contains sanctions that historically have been considered to be punishment; (3) promotes the traditional punitive goals of deterrence and retribution; and (4) is excessive in relation to its stated purpose, even if only slightly. Each of these militates in favor of holding the entire scheme punitive. Although no one factor is controlling, these findings collectively paint a clear picture of punitive effect. The impact that subjection to Subchapter I will have on an offender's life cannot be understated. Compliance with the subchapter will be the defining feature of an offender's life for the duration of his or her statutory obligations, be it ten years or a lifetime. The offender must report yearly to an approved facility, differing little if at all from a probationer's visit with a probation officer. The offender is required to report to the PSP within three days any changes in the essential aspects of his or her existence. Although this obligation is less demanding than the more numerous in-person reporting requirements of earlier statutes, it nonetheless impacts the offender's life heavily, inasmuch as it creates a perpetual obligation that can never be neglected, lest severe penalties be inflicted for a single failure. At the same time, a significant amount of an offender's identifying information is posted online, and can be accessed readily or even automatically delivered to members of the public. This may impair an offender's ability to move into a community, to attend school, to find and keep gainful employment, and to remain crime-free without the threat of harassment or ostracism. Such control and monitoring differs little, if at all, from the situation of a convicted offender placed on probation. Indeed, as I explained above, it can result in penalties for non-compliance more severe than those a probationer would face for violating the terms and conditions of his or her sentence.

All told, the statutory enactment restrains the offender's liberty, resembles punishment, and is aimed at deterrence and retribution, resulting in a scheme that is excessive in relation to the lone factor weighing in the opposite direction, the existence of a rationally connected non-punitive purpose. I would deem this to be the "clearest proof" that is necessary to render the civil scheme punitive in effect.

I do not opine in any way upon the propriety or wisdom of the obligations imposed upon sexual offenders. That is neither my focus, nor my job. It may well be that the General Assembly's choices are necessary to achieve its goals, and essential to protect society, as the Majority holds. See Maj. Op. at –––– – ––––. That does not change the fact that those same choices created a punitive scheme that, when applied retroactively, amounts to an unconstitutional ex post facto law. Consequently, as written, the statute must be invalidated. Because the Majority holds otherwise, I respectfully dissent.

Justice Donohue joins the concurring and dissenting opinion.

Summaries of

Commonwealth v. Lacombe

Supreme Court of Pennsylvania.

Jul 21, 2020

234 A.3d 602 (Pa. 2020)

holding "Subchapter I is nonpunitive and does not violate the constitutional prohibition against ex post facto laws."

Summary of this case from Bodle v. Smith

holding Subchapter I of the Sex Offender Registration and Notification Act, 42 Pa.C.S. §§ 9799.51-9799.76, does not constitute criminal punishment and is not an ex post facto law

Summary of this case from M.G. v. Pa. State Police

holding that Subchapter I of the Sex Offender Registration and Notification Act, 42 Pa.C.S. §§ 9799.51 -9799.76, does not constitute criminal punishment and is not an ex post facto law

Summary of this case from L.S. v. Pa. State Police

holding Subchapter I of Sex Offender Registration and Notification Act, 42 Pa.C.S. §§ 9799.51 - 9799.75, does not constitute criminal punishment and therefore does not violate constitutional prohibition against ex post facto laws

Summary of this case from B.W. v. Pa. State Police

Summary of this case from Steinman v. Blocker

holding that Subchapter I of the Sex Offender Registration and Notification Act, 42 Pa.C.S. §§ 9799.51 - 9799.75, is not punitive and does not violate the constitutional prohibition against ex post facto laws

Summary of this case from Commonwealth v. Brabham

holding that Subchapter I of Sex Offender Registration and Notification Act, 42 Pa.C.S. §§ 9799.51-9799.76, does not constitute criminal punishment and is not an ex post facto law

Summary of this case from T.S. v. Pa. State Police

Summary of this case from Commonwealth v. Bres

holding Subchapter I of Sex Offender Registration and Notification Act, 42 Pa.C.S. §§ 9799.51 -9799.76, does not constitute criminal punishment and therefore does not violate constitutional prohibition against ex post facto laws

Summary of this case from Commonwealth v. Overton

holding that Subchapter I of Sex Offender Registration and Notification Act, 42 Pa.C.S. §§ 9799.51 -9799.76, does not constitute criminal punishment and not an ex post facto law

Summary of this case from Commonwealth v. Crozier

holding retroactive application of Subchapter I of SORNA II nonpunitive and does not violate constitutional prohibition against ex post facto laws

Summary of this case from Commonwealth v. Moreno

holding that PCRA time requirements will not bar challenges to the constitutionality of SORNA

Summary of this case from Commonwealth v. Taylor

holding Subchapter I of SORNA II is nonpunitive and does not violate constitutional prohibition against ex post facto laws

Summary of this case from Commonwealth v. Thompson

holding that there is not one exclusive avenue in which to challenge sex offender registration requirements

Summary of this case from Commonwealth v. Young

holding that the registration requirements in Subchapter I of SORNA II are non-punitive and, thus, retroactive application of those requirements does not violate the constitutional proscription against ex post facto laws

Summary of this case from M. T. v. The Pa. State Police of the Commonwealth

holding that Subchapter I of [SORNA II] does not constitute criminal punishment and is not an ex post facto law

Summary of this case from Huu Cao v. The Pa. State Police of the Commonwealth

finding Subchapter I of SORNA II was non-punitive and did not violate the constitutional prohibition against ex post facto laws

Summary of this case from Commonwealth v. Ispache

concluding that there is no exclusive procedural mechanism for challenging the obligation to register as a sexual offender

Summary of this case from Commonwealth v. Born

determining that neither the PCRA, nor "any other procedural mechanism," is the exclusive method for challenging sexual offender registration statutes

Summary of this case from Commonwealth v. Buonaiuto

recognizing that, "frequent changes to sexual offender registration statutes, along with more onerous requirements and retroactive application, complicate registrants' ability to challenge new requirements imposed years after their sentences become final"

Summary of this case from Commonwealth v. Zepprinans

describing this legislative scheme

Summary of this case from A.L. v. Pa. State Police

In Commonwealth v. Lacombe, 234 A.3d 602 (Pa. 2020), our Supreme Court held that the retroactive application of Subchapter I of SORNA is nonpunitive and does not violate the constitutional prohibition against expost facto laws.

Summary of this case from Commonwealth v. Moreno

In Commonwealth v. Lacombe, 234 A.3d 602 (Pa. 2020), our Supreme Court rejected a challenge to the constitutionality of subchapter I's registration requirements.

Summary of this case from Commonwealth v. Sherman

explaining that, after our High Court ruled that retroactive application of SORNA constituted an ex post facto violation, the General Assembly "bifurcated SORNA within the Sentencing Code into two distinct subchapters: Subchapter H and Subchapter I. Subchapter H governs offenders whose triggering crimes were committed on or after December 20, 2012. Subchapter I applies retroactively to those whose offenses occurred before that date." (footnote omitted)

Summary of this case from Commonwealth v. Crenshaw

stating our Supreme Court "has not yet required that sexual offender registration statutes be challenged through the PCRA or some other procedural mechanism"

Summary of this case from Commonwealth v. Villanueva-Pabon

Commonwealth v. Lacombe

Summary

Opinion

OPINION

I. Procedural History of the Present Appeals

A. Claude Lacombe

B. Michael Witmayer

C. Summary of the Arguments and Applicable Standards of Review

II. Relevant Legal History

A. Original SORNA Statute

C. Subchapter I

III. Preliminary Procedural Issues

IV. Ex Post Facto Analysis

A. Intent of General Assembly

B. Mendoza-Martinez Factors

i. Whether Subchapter I Involves an Affirmative Disability or Restraint

ii. Whether Subchapter I's Requirements Have Been Historically Regarded as Punishment

iii. Whether Subchapter I Comes into Play Only on a Finding of Scienter

iv. Whether the Operation of Subchapter I Promotes the Traditional Aims of Punishment

vi. Whether there is an Alternative Purpose to which Subchapter I may be Rationally Connected

vii. Whether Subchapter I is Excessive in Relation to the Alternative Purpose Assigned

viii. Balancing of the Factors

V. Conclusion

CONCURRING OPINION

CONCURRING AND DISSENTING OPINION

I. Relevant Legal History

II. Subchapter I

III. Preliminary Procedural Issues

IV. Ex Post Facto Analysis

A. Legislative Intent

B. The Mendoza-Martinez Factors

i. Whether Subchapter I Imposes an Affirmative Disability or Restraint

ii. Whether the Operation of Subchapter I is Consistent With What Has Historically Been Regarded as Punishment

iii. Whether the Statute Comes Into Play Only on a Finding of Scienter

iv. Whether Subchapter I's Operation Will Promote the Traditional Aims of Punishment—Deterrence and Retribution

v. Whether the Behavior to Which Subchapter I Applies Already is a Crime

vi. Whether an Alternative Purpose to Which Subchapter I May Rationally Be Connected is Assignable for It.

vii. Balancing of the Factors; Conclusion

Commonwealth v. Lacombe

Commonwealth v. Lacombe

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